Everyday life in Rus' 10th - 13th centuries. Daily life in Rus' in the XIII-XV centuries

In the XIII - XV centuries. noble people in Rus' lived mostly in mansions- two or three-story buildings, first wooden, and later stone, with porches and towers. They were surrounded by high wooden fences with gates and a wicket. In the center of the courtyard, in addition to the mansion itself, there were several more houses for servants. Stables, stalls, barns and baths were also built here. Very rich people built their own church. A garden, vegetable garden, and flower beds were located near the courtyard.

The mansions had living rooms, light rooms- the rooms that were best lit - here women embroidered, weaved, spun, etc. There was also a room for receiving guests upper room(modern living room). When it was cold, stoves were lit in the mansions. The smoke came out through the chimney. Mansions were sure to have icons, good quality and bulky wooden furniture: tables, benches, chairs, chests, cabinets and shelves for storing dishes, etc. In the 14th-15th centuries. Glass windows began to be installed in the houses of the richest people in Moscow and Novgorod. At dusk, candles made of tallow or wax were lit.

Ordinary people lived in dugouts, half-dugouts or shacks that did not have windows to keep warm longer. Such housing was heated, so to speak, in a black way: there was no chimney, and the smoke came out through a hole in the roof. Wealthy peasants had a fenced yard: a wooden house with outbuildings, a garden and a vegetable garden. An integral element of such a house was the stove. It heated the room, they cooked food and baked bread in it, and sometimes they slept on the stove, especially on cold winter nights. The room was illuminated with torches. The furniture was poor (a table and two lavas), and the dishes were modest - clay and wooden pots, bowls, spoons, knives.

Clothes showed that a person belonged to a certain class. The common people wore coarse homespun clothing - hemp, linen or wool. The fabrics were dyed in different colors. Young people wore brighter clothes, and older people wore darker ones. Wealthy people sewed their clothes from expensive foreign fabrics.

Both men and women wore an undershirt, followed by an embroidered outer shirt. Men wore tight pants. In autumn and winter they also wore retinues, zipuns, caftans, sheepskin coats, and rich feudal lords and merchants wore fur coats made of bears, wolves, foxes, and sables. The outer clothing was belted with a wide belt, onto which a wicket was attached. Noble men wore fur hats, and common people wore felt ones.

I. Argunov. A woman in a kokoshnik. 1784

Women's shirts were long, reaching to the heels, and sundresses were put on top of them - dresses made of dense fabric without sleeves, decorated with embroidery. When it rained, women wore cloaks. In winter they wore fur clothes: the rich wore expensive fur, and the poor wore cheap fur. Russian princess in the 15th century. could have a dozen or even more coats of a wide variety of fur. Fur coats were taken care of, worn neatly and passed on as inheritance. Material from the site

Girls wore their hair down or braided. Married women hid under a scarf, on top of which they put on a kokoshnik - a headdress with a high dowel decorated with a semicircular shield.

Feudal lords and townspeople, men and women, wore leather shoes and boots, and peasants wore mainly bast shoes and felt boots.

They ate mainly flour dishes and porridges. “Bread and porridge are our food,” says a Russian proverb. They ate rye bread, and occasionally wheat bread. Breakfast was poor, but lunch and dinner were filling. Traditional foods: rassolnik, cabbage soup, porridge, pancakes, pancakes, etc. They also ate a lot of fruits, berries, mushrooms, nuts and honey. They often ate fish, milk, cheese, butter, and eggs. The nobles were served game (deer, hare, wild boar, hazel grouse, duck), and ordinary people ate lamb and veal.

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Basic concepts:

Chronicle

Birch bark certificates

Main names:

Nestor "The Tale of Bygone Years"

Metropolitan Hilarion "Sermon on Law and Grace"

Daniil Sharpener “Word”, “Prayer”

Vladimir Monomakh “Teaching to Children”

The concept of culture includes everything that is created by the mind, talent, and hands of the people, everything that expresses its spiritual essence, its view of the world, of nature, of human relations.

Features of Old Russian culture.

1. Russian culture developed like the culture of all Eastern Slavs, at the same time having its own regional characteristics.

2. The influence on Russian culture of neighboring peoples - Ugrofins, Balts, Iranian tribes, and other Slavic peoples.

3. strong influence of Byzantium, which was for its time one of the most cultural states in the world.

4. From the very beginning, culture developed as synthetic, i.e. influenced by various cultural trends, styles, traditions.

5. influence of pagan religion and pagan worldview

6. the support of Russian culture on folk origins and popular perception

7. the influence of the baptism of Rus' on culture

Christianity became the state religion of Kievan Rus in 988, during the reign of Vladimir I the Holy (980-1015). The princely power received reliable support - spiritual and political - in the new religion and the church that professed it. The state was strengthened, and with it inter-tribal differences were overcome. A single faith gave the subjects of the state a new sense of unity and community. Gradually, an all-Russian self-awareness took shape - an important element of the unity of the ancient Russian people.

The baptism of Rus' turned it into an equal partner of medieval Christian states and thereby strengthened the foreign policy position in the world of that time.

The spiritual and cultural significance of accepting Christianity is enormous. Liturgical books in the Slavic language came to Rus' from Bulgaria and Byzantium, and the number of those who mastered Slavic writing and literacy increased. The immediate consequence of the baptism of Russia was the development of painting, icon painting, stone and wooden architecture, church and secular literature, and the education system.

Pagan antiquity was preserved primarily V oral folk art - folklore (riddles, conspiracies, spells, proverbs, fairy tales, songs). A special place in the historical memory of the people was occupied by epics - heroic tales about defenders of their native land from enemies. Folk storytellers glorify the exploits of Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich, Alyosha Popovich, Volga, Mikula Selyaninovich and other epic heroes (in total there are more than 50 main characters in the epics). They address their appeal to them: “You stand for the faith, for the fatherland, you stand for the glorious capital city of Kiev!” It is interesting that in epics the motive of defending the fatherland is supplemented with the motive of defending the Christian faith. The Baptism of Rus' was the most important event in the history of ancient Russian culture.

With the adoption of Christianity began a rapid development of writing . Writing was known in Rus' in pre-Christian times (mention of “lines and cuts”, mid-1st millennium; information about treaties with Byzantium drawn up in Russian; the discovery of a clay vessel near Smolensk with an inscription in Cyrillic - the alphabet created by the Slavic enlighteners Cyril and Methodius at the turn of the X-XI centuries). Orthodoxy brought liturgical books, religious and secular translated literature to Rus'. The oldest handwritten books have reached us - the “Ostromir Gospel” (1057) and two “Izborniki” (collections of texts) of Prince Svyatoslav (1073 and 1076). They say that in the XI-XIII centuries. 130-140 thousand books of several hundred titles were in circulation: the level of literacy in Ancient Rus' was very high by the standards of the Middle Ages. There is other evidence: birch bark letters (archaeologists discovered them in the middle of the 20th century in Veliky Novgorod), inscriptions on the walls of cathedrals and handicrafts, the activities of monastic schools, the richest book collections of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra and St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod, etc.

There was an opinion that ancient Russian culture was “dumb” - it was believed to have no original literature. This is wrong. Old Russian literature represented by various genres (chronicles, lives of saints, journalism, teachings and travel notes, the wonderful “Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, which does not belong to any known genre), it is distinguished by a wealth of images, styles and trends.

The oldest chronicle that has reached us is « The Tale of Bygone Years" - created around 1113 by the monk of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra Nestor. The famous questions with which “The Tale of Bygone Years” opens: “Where did the Russian land come from, who was the first prince in Kiev and how did the Russian land begin to exist” - already speak about the scale of the personality of the creator of the chronicle, his literary abilities. After the collapse of Kievan Rus, independent chronicle schools arose in the isolated lands, but they all turned to the “Tale of Bygone Years” as a model.

Among the works of the oratorical and journalistic genre, the following stands out: “The Sermon on Law and Grace”, created by Hilarion, the first metropolitan of Russian origin, in the middle of the 11th century. These are reflections on power, on the place of Russia in Europe. The “Teaching” of Vladimir Monomakh, written for his sons, is wonderful. The prince must be wise, merciful, fair, educated, lenient and firm in protecting the weak.

The unknown author of the greatest work of ancient Russian literature also called for agreement and reconciliation among the princes. « A Word about Igor's Campaign "(end of the 12th century). A real event - the defeat of the Seversk prince Igor from the Polovtsians (1185-1187) - became only the reason for the creation of the “Word”, amazing with the richness of the language, the harmony of the composition, and the power of the figurative structure. The author sees the Russian land from a great height, covers vast spaces with his mind's eye, as if “flying with his mind under the clouds,” “scouring the fields to the mountains” (D. S. Likhachev). Danger threatens Rus', and the princes must forget the strife in order to save it from destruction.

architecture and painting .

The Byzantine traditions of stone architecture came with Christianity. The greatest buildings of the 11th-12th centuries. (Desiatinnaya Church, which died in 1240, cathedrals dedicated to Hagia Sophia in Kyiv, Novgorod, Chernigov, Polotsk) followed Byzantine traditions. A cylindrical drum rests on four massive pillars in the center of the building, connected by arches. The hemisphere of the dome rests firmly on it. Following the four branches of the cross, the remaining parts of the temple are adjacent to them, ending with vaults, sometimes with domes. In the altar part there are semicircular projections and apses. This is the cross-dome composition of the church building developed by the Byzantines. The internal and often external walls of the temple are painted with frescoes (painting on wet plaster) or covered with mosaics. A special place is occupied by icons - picturesque images of Christ, the Mother of God, and saints. The first icons came to Rus' from Byzantium, but Russian masters quickly mastered the strict laws of icon painting. Honoring traditions and diligently learning from Byzantine teachers, Russian architects and painters showed amazing creative freedom: ancient Russian architecture and icon painting were more open to the world, cheerful, and decorative than Byzantine ones. By the middle of the 12th century. The differences between the art schools of Vladimir-Suzdal, Novgorod, and southern Russian lands also became obvious. Joyful, light, lavishly decorated Vladimir churches (the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, etc.) contrast with the squat, solid, massive churches of Novgorod (the Church of the Savior on Nereditsa, Paraskeva Pyatnitsa on Torg, etc.). The Novgorod icons “Golden Hair Angel”, “The Sign” differ from the icons “Dmitry of Thessalonica” or “The Bogolyubskaya Mother of God” painted by Vladimir-Suzdal masters.

Among the greatest achievements of ancient Russian culture is and artistic craft, or pattern making, as he was called in Rus'. Gold jewelry covered with enamel, silver items made using filigree, granulation or niello techniques, patterned decoration of weapons - all this testifies to the high skill and taste of ancient Russian artisans.

This state is the fruit of the feat of the Russian people, who defended their faith and independence, their ideals on the edge of the European world. Researchers note such features in ancient Russian culture as syntheticity and openness. An original spiritual world was created as a result of the interaction of the heritage and traditions of the Eastern Slavs with the Byzantine culture, and consequently, the traditions of antiquity. The time of formation, as well as the first flowering of Old Russian culture, falls on the period from the 10th to the first half of the 13th centuries (that is, in the pre-Mongol period).

Folklore

The traditions of ancient paganism have been preserved primarily in folklore in songs, fairy tales, proverbs, spells, conspiracies, and riddles. In the historical memory of the Russian people, epics occupied a special place. They represented heroic tales about brave defenders from the enemies of their native land. Folk storytellers sing about the exploits of Mikula Selyaninovich, Volga, Alyosha Popovich, Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich and other heroes (there are more than 50 different main characters in the epics).

They appeal to them to stand up for the fatherland, for the faith. In the epics, interestingly, the motive of defending the country is supplemented by another - the defense of the Christian faith. The most important event was her baptism.

Writing in Rus'

With the adoption of Christianity, writing began to develop rapidly. Although she was known even earlier. As evidence, one can cite the mention of “traits and cuts” dating back to the middle of the first millennium, information about treaties between Rus' and Byzantium, which were drawn up in Russian, a clay vessel near Smolensk with a Cyrillic inscription (the alphabet created by Cyril and Methodius, the enlighteners of the Slavs at the turn of the 10th-11th centuries).

Orthodoxy brought many liturgical books, secular and religious literature in translation to Rus'. Handwritten books have reached us: two “Izborniki” of Prince Svyatoslav, dated 1073 and 1076, the “Ostromir Gospel”, dating back to 1057. They claim that in the 11th-13th centuries there were about 130-140 thousand books with several hundred titles . By the standards of the Middle Ages, the level of literacy in Ancient Rus' was quite high. There is also other evidence. These are those discovered by archaeologists in Veliky Novgorod in the mid-20th century, as well as inscriptions on handicrafts and the walls of cathedrals, the activities of monastery schools, book collections and the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra and others, which are used today to study the culture and life of Ancient Rus'.

There was an opinion that ancient Russian culture was “dumb,” that is, it did not have its own original literature. However, this assumption is incorrect. The literature of Ancient Rus' is represented in various genres. These include the lives of saints, chronicles, teachings, journalism, and travel notes. Let us also note here the famous “Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” which did not belong to any of the genres that existed at that time. Thus, the literature of Ancient Rus' is distinguished by a wealth of trends, styles, and images.

Spinning and weaving

The Old Russian state was distinguished not only by its original culture, but also by its way of life. Life is interesting and unique. Residents were engaged in various crafts. For women, the main occupation was spinning and weaving. Russian women had to weave the required amount of fabric to dress their family, usually a large one, and also to decorate the house with towels and tablecloths. It is no coincidence that the spinning wheel was considered a traditional gift among peasants, which was kept with love and passed on from generation to generation.

There was a custom in Rus' to give beloved girls a spinning wheel of their own making. The more skillfully the master carved and painted it, the more elegant it looked, the more honor he had. Russian girls gathered for gatherings on winter evenings and took spinning wheels with them to show off them.

Houses in cities

Customs, like life, in ancient Russian cities had a slightly different character than in villages. There were practically no dugouts here (see photo).

The life of Ancient Rus' in cities was reflected in various buildings. City residents most often built two-story houses, which consisted of several rooms. The houses of warriors, clergy, princes, and boyars had their own differences. Large areas of land were necessarily allocated for estates, log houses for servants and artisans, as well as various outbuildings were built. The life of Ancient Rus' was different for different segments of the population, which was reflected in the types of dwellings. Boyar and princely mansions were real palaces. These houses were decorated with expensive carpets and fabrics.

The Russian people lived in fairly large cities. They numbered tens of thousands of inhabitants. Villages and hamlets could have only a few dozen households. Life was preserved in them longer than in cities.

Houses in villages

Residential areas along which various trade routes passed had a higher standard of living. Peasants lived, as a rule, in small houses. In the south, semi-dugouts were common, the roofs of which were often covered with earth.

In Rus', northern huts were two-story, high, with small windows (there could be more than five of them). Sheds, storerooms and canopies were built to the side of the dwelling. They were all usually under one roof. This type of housing was very convenient for the harsh northern winters. Many elements of the houses were decorated with geometric patterns.

Interior of peasant huts

In Ancient Rus' it was quite simple. The huts in the villages usually did not look rich. The interior of the peasant huts was decorated quite strictly, but elegantly. In front of the icons, in the front corner, there was a large table, which was intended for all members of a given family. Ancient household items in Rus' also included wide benches that stood along the walls. They were decorated with carved edges. Most often, there were shelves above them, which were intended for storing dishes. Household items of Ancient Rus' included a postavets (northern cabinet), which was usually complemented by elegant paintings depicting flowers, birds, horses, as well as pictures allegorically depicting the seasons.

On holidays the table was covered with red cloth. They placed carved and painted dishes on it, as well as lights for the torch. Ancient Rus' was famous for its wood craftsmen. They made various dishes. The most beautiful were the ancient Russian ladles of various sizes and shapes. Some of them could accommodate several buckets in volume. Ladles intended for drinking were often boat-shaped. Their handles were decorated with horse heads or carved ducks. The ladles were also generously complemented with carvings and paintings.

Duck ladles were duck-shaped ladles. The chiseled vessels that resembled a ball were called brothers. Beautiful salt shakers, shaped like horses or birds, were carved by wood craftsmen. Beautiful spoons and bowls were also made. Everything related to the life of Ancient Rus' was usually made of wood: cradles for children, mortars, bowls, baskets, furniture. The craftsmen who created furniture not only thought about convenience, but also about beauty. These things certainly had to please the eye, turning even the most difficult work of the peasants into a holiday.

Clothes of various segments of the population

It was also possible to identify different segments of the population by clothing. Peasants and artisans, both men and women, wore shirts that were made from homespun linen. In addition to shirts, men wore pants, and women wore skirts. Ordinary people wore ordinary fur coats in winter.

The shape of the clothing of noble people was often similar to that of peasants, but in quality, of course, it was completely different. Such clothes were created from expensive fabrics. Often cloaks were made from oriental fabrics embroidered with gold. Winter coats were made only from valuable furs. Peasants and townspeople also wore different shoes. Only rich residents could afford to buy boots or pistons (shoes). The princes also wore boots that were richly decorated with inlay. Peasants could afford to make or purchase only bast shoes, which survived in Russian culture until the 20th century.

Feasts and hunting in Ancient Rus'

The hunting and feasts of the ancient Russian nobility were known throughout the world. During such events, the most important state affairs were often decided. The inhabitants of Ancient Rus' publicly and magnificently celebrated their victories in campaigns. Honey and overseas wine flowed like a river. Servants served huge platters of meat and game. These feasts were necessarily attended by mayors and elders from all cities, as well as a huge number of people. It is difficult to imagine the life of the inhabitants of Ancient Rus' without abundant feasts. The tsar feasted with the boyars and retinue on the high gallery of his palace, and the tables for the people were located in the courtyard.

Falconry, hound hunting and hawk hunting were considered the pastime of the rich. Various games, races, and tournaments were built for the common people. The life of Ancient Rus' also included a bathhouse as an integral part, especially in the north.

Other features of Russian life

Children in the boyar-princely environment were not raised independently. Boys at the age of three were put on a horse, after which they were given to the care and training of a pestun (that is, a teacher). Young princes at the age of 12 were sent to govern volosts and cities. Wealthy families began teaching literacy to both girls and boys in the 11th century. The Kiev market was a favorite place for ordinary and noble people. It sold items and products from all over the world, including India and Baghdad. The ancient people of Rus' loved to bargain.

Occupies a special place, 2 types - corpse placement and burning. The primitive burial of corpses, which were artificially given the position of an embryo in the womb, was associated with the belief in a second birth after death. Therefore, the deceased was buried prepared for this second birth. The Pre-Slavs in the Bronze Age refused this. A ritual appeared, generated by new views about the human soul, which does not incarnate again in any other creature (beast, bird, man...), but moves into the airy space of the sky. This was achieved by burying the burnt ashes in the ground and building a model of a house, a “house”, over the burial. There is information that the deceased, having performed a funeral feast over him, was burned, his bones were collected in a small vessel and placed on a pole on crucifixes, where the paths were crossed. Roadside pillars on which stood vessels with the ashes of their ancestors are boundary signs that guarded the boundaries of the ancestral field and grandfather’s estate. There are other descriptions of the funeral rite among the Slavs: the village elder announced to the residents the death of one of them by means of a black rod carried from the yard to yard All the residents saw off the corpse with loud crying, and some women in white clothes poured tears into small vessels called lamentations. They made a fire in the cemetery and burned the dead man with his wife, horse, and weapons; They collected the ashes in urns, clay, copper or glass, and buried them along with the lamentable vessels. Sometimes they built monuments: they lined the graves with wild stones and fenced them off with pillars. The sad rituals concluded with a cheerful celebration, which was called strava. During the heyday of paganism, the most common and honorable thing was burning, followed by the pouring of a mound. After this, a funeral feast was held on the mound in memory of the deceased. In another way, the so-called hostage dead were buried - those who died a suspicious, unclean death or who did not live according to the truth. The funeral of such dead was expressed in throwing the body far away into a swamp or ravine, after which it was piled on top with branches (so as not to desecrate the earth and water with an unclean corpse). Burial in the ground, which is familiar to us, became widespread only after the adoption of Christianity. Ritual food at funerals was kutia, pancakes and jelly. The deceased were commemorated on Christmastide, on Maundy Thursday and Radonitsa, on Semik and before Demetrius Day. On the days of remembrance of the dead, a bathhouse was heated for them, fires were lit (to keep them warm), and food was left for them on the festive table. The Yuletide mummers also represented ancestors who had come from the other world and collected gifts. The goal is to appease deceased ancestors. belief in “hostage dead” - people who did not die a natural death; they were feared and revered during general commemorations.

9. Life and customs in Rus' - 10-12 centuries. Housing

For many years, Rus' was a wooden country, and its pagan chapels, fortresses, towers, and huts were built of wood. They expressed a sense of structural beauty, proportions, and the fusion of architectural structures with the surrounding nature. wooden architecture dates back to pagan Rus', stone architecture is associated with Christian Russia. Russian wooden architecture is characterized by multi-tiered buildings, crowning them with turrets and towers, the presence of various kinds of outbuildings - cages, passages, vestibules. Intricate artistic wood carving - traditional. Forest, wood - the main construction material, was easily processed, convenient for the construction of simple dwellings. but it was not durable and could not withstand fire, fires. The main type of housing is the hut - a Russian log house. At first, the huts were semi-dugout, with the log house lowered half a meter into the ground, the floors were earthen. As a rule, there were no windows. The stove was heated black, that is, the smoke spread throughout the hut. The sides and top of the hut were covered with earth. From the second half of the 10th century. above-ground huts begin to predominate, wooden floors appear on joists, raised above ground level. In the walls of the huts, fiberglass windows begin to be cut. At first they were narrow and covered from the inside with planks. Later, red windows began to be cut into which mica windows were inserted. Stoves appeared that were heated “white”. Ceilings were needed, which were covered with earth, and clay pipes, which brought the smoke out through the ceiling. Before the Tatar-Mongol invasion, two-chamber and three-chamber huts appeared more and more, and in some places two-story wooden houses were built.

ancient Rus', culture, everyday culture, structure of everyday life

Annotation:

The article discusses the features of everyday culture of Ancient Rus'

Article text:

Old Russian state - state of the 9th - early 12th centuries. in Eastern Europe, which arose in the last quarter of the 9th century. as a result of the unification under the rule of the princes of the Rurik dynasty of the two main centers of the Eastern Slavs - Novgorod and Kyiv, as well as lands (settlements in the area of ​​​​Staraya Ladoga, Gnezdov) located along the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks”. In its heyday, the Old Russian state covered the territory from the Taman Peninsula in the south, the Dniester and the headwaters of the Vistula in the west, to the headwaters of the Northern Dvina in the north. The formation of the state was preceded by a long period (from the 6th century) of the maturation of its prerequisites in the depths of military democracy. During the existence of the Old Russian state, the East Slavic tribes formed into the Old Russian nationality.

Power in Rus' belonged to the prince of Kyiv, who was surrounded by a squad that depended on him and fed mainly from his campaigns. The veche also played a certain role. The government was carried out with the help of thousand and sotskys, i.e., on the basis of a military organization. The prince's income came from various sources. In the 10th - early 11th centuries. These are basically “polyudye”, “lessons” (tribute) received annually from the field.

In the 11th - early 12th centuries. In connection with the emergence of large land ownership with various types of rent, the functions of the prince expanded. Owning his own large domain, the prince was forced to manage a complex economy, appoint posadniks, volostels, tiuns, and manage a numerous administration.

Palace officials emerged who were in charge of individual branches of government. The cities were headed by the urban patriciate, formed in the 11th century. from large local landowners - “elders” and warriors. The merchants enjoyed great influence in the city. The need to protect goods during transportation led to the appearance of armed merchant guards; among the city militia, merchants occupied first place. The largest part of the urban population were artisans, both free and dependent. A special place was occupied by the clergy, divided into black (monastic) and white (secular).

The rural population consisted of free communal peasants (their number was decreasing) and already enslaved peasants. There was a group of peasants, cut off from the community, deprived of the means of production and who were the labor force within the estate.

During the era of the formation of the Old Russian state, arable farming with harnessed tillage tools gradually replaced hoe tillage everywhere (in the north somewhat later). A three-field farming system emerged; Wheat, oats, millet, rye, and barley were grown. Chronicles mention spring and winter bread. The population was also engaged in cattle breeding, hunting, fishing and beekeeping. Village craft was of secondary importance. The first to emerge was iron production, based on local bog ore. The metal was obtained by the cheese blowing method. Written sources give several terms to designate a rural settlement: “pogost” (“peace”), “freedom” (“sloboda”), “village”, “village”.

The main trend in the development of the social system of Ancient Rus' was the formation of feudal ownership of land, with the gradual enslavement of free community members. The result of the enslavement of the village was its inclusion in the system of feudal economy, based on labor and food rent. Along with this, there were also elements of slavery (servitude).

In the 6th-7th centuries. in the forest belt, places of settlement of a clan or a small family (fortified settlements) disappear, and they are replaced by unfortified village settlements and fortified estates of the nobility. A patrimonial economy begins to take shape. The center of the estate is the “prince’s yard”, in which the prince lived from time to time, where, in addition to his mansion, there were the houses of his servants - boyars-warriors, the homes of serfs, serfs. The estate was ruled by a boyar - a fireman who disposed of the princely tiuns. Representatives of the patrimonial administration had both economic and political functions. Crafts developed on the patrimonial farm. With the complication of the patrimonial system, the estate isolation of unfree artisans begins to disappear, a connection with the market and competition with urban crafts arise.

The development of crafts and trade led to the emergence of cities. The most ancient of them are Kyiv, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Smolensk, Rostov, Ladoga, Pskov, Polotsk. The center of the city was a market where handicraft products were sold. Various types of crafts developed in the city: blacksmithing, gunsmithing, jewelry (forging and minting, embossing and stamping of silver and gold, filigree, granulation), pottery, leatherworking, tailoring.

Everyday culture of Ancient Rus'.

Lifestyle. Since ancient times, the Slavs have been distinguished by their respectful attitude towards elders. The head of the family was both his father and his boss; and everyone else: wife, children, relatives and servants obeyed him unquestioningly. Russians were meek and quiet, their modesty simplified marriage life, calmness and chastity reigned in families.

Our ancestors were distinguished by moderation, being content with what nature produced; enjoyed longevity, were strong and cheerful, loved dancing, music, round dances and songs. Tireless in their work and tied to agriculture, they were rewarded with a bountiful harvest, meat, milk and skins, which served as cover from the weather. Kindness of heart, shown everywhere by hospitality and hospitality, was a distinctive feature of our ancestors.

There was a custom to invite a traveler or passer-by to your house, feed him and greet him. The hosts greet the guest with joy, serve everything they have on the table, and do not take any payment from him, thinking that taking money from a passerby for bread and salt is a great sin.

Russians did not like to find fault with words; they were very simple in their manners and said “you” to everyone.

For a long time in Rus', people got up before sunrise and immediately prayed to God, asking for his holy help for good deeds; without praying they did nothing. Whether they were going on a journey, building a house, or sowing a field, first of all they went to church to pray. Before dangerous enterprises, they confessed and received communion. Faith strengthened the people during the greatest adversity. Before setting out on a campaign, no regiment will move forward without serving a prayer service and without being sprinkled with sacred water.

Whether someone sat down at the table or stood up from it, he crossed his forehead with the sign of the cross.

Holidays were celebrated with reverent rituals. During the festivities, everyone forgot their enmity and formed a single society.

Every person who met an acquaintance or passed by someone unfamiliar, but distinguished in some way, greeted him by removing his hat and bowing his head. A stranger who entered a hut or a magnificent chamber first turned his gaze to the icon and prayed; then he bowed and said hello.

Nobles and rich people were arrogant towards the poor, but hospitable and polite among themselves. The guest was greeted with hugs and asked to sit down, but the guest, upon entering the room, looked for icons with his eyes, approached them, crossed himself and first made three prostrations, then addressed the hosts with greetings. Having given each other their hand, they kissed and bowed several times, and the lower, the more respectful it was considered; then they sat down and talked. The guest sat down facing the images. Here he was treated to honey, beer, and cherries. At the end of the conversation, the guest, taking the hat, approached the images, crossed himself, made the same bows and said goodbye to the owner, wishing him health. The owner responded with a reciprocal wish and accompanied him without a hat to the porch; the beloved guest was escorted all the way to the gate, and the honored guest was escorted even further, a few steps from the gate.

Clothes, suit (regular, festive) . Finds from the layers of ancient Russian cities, tombs and rural burials tell about the whole variety of locally produced fabrics from which clothes were made. These include woolen fabrics, woven mainly from sheep wool and fabrics from plant fibers of different structures (flax, hemp). Among woolen and half-woolen fabrics there are checkered and striped fabrics. Patterned fabrics are also known. Common for the 10th – 12th centuries are patterned and unpatterned ribbons, braids, laces and fringes made of woolen yarn. Cloth and felt items were widespread. Some of the fabrics were woven from wool in natural brown, black, and gray colors. Mineral dyes were also used - ocher, red iron ore, etc.

The main types of clothing were a shirt and ports, and among the nobility it was underwear, among the people it was the main one. The richer the person, the more layered his suit was. We can say that a shirt is the oldest of clothes, for its name goes back to the ancient word “rub”, i.e. "the rudest" The length of the shirt, the material from which it was made, and the nature of the ornaments were determined by social class and age. Long shirts were worn by noble and elderly people, shorter ones by other classes, since, unlike the measured and leisurely life of princes and boyars, the everyday life of the working people was filled with hard work and clothing should not hinder movements. A shirt was worn for graduation and always with a belt (if a person did not put on a belt, they said that he had loosened his belt). The fabrics were woven narrow (30-40 cm), and therefore shirts were made with one-piece sleeves or a rectangular armhole. For ease of movement, gussets were inserted; for strength, they were placed on a lining made of another fabric (this is what it means to “know the background of the matter”). Festive shirts for the nobility were made from expensive thin linens or silks in bright colors and decorated with embroidery. Despite the conventionality of the pattern of the ornament, many of its elements were of a symbolic nature; they seemed to protect a person from other evil eyes and misfortunes. The decorations were “hanging” - removable: collars, necklaces and sleeves - cuffs, richly embroidered with gold, precious stones and pearls.

Portas, narrowed at the ankle, were made of canvas; noble men wore another one on top - silk or cloth. They were tied together at the waist with a cord called a cup (hence the expression “to keep something in a stash”). The ports were tucked into boots made of colored leather, often embroidered with patterns or wrapped with onuchi (pieces of linen 2.5 meters long), and bast shoes were put on them, with strings pulled through the ears - frills, and the onuchi were wrapped with them. In our minds, all bast shoes are the same. But that's not true. The bast shoes were thick and thin. Dark and light, simple and woven with patterns, there were also elegant ones - made of tinted multi-colored bast.

Outerwear was a retinue, caftan and fur coat. Vita was put on over the head. It was made of cloth, with narrow long sleeves, the knees were necessarily covered, and girded with a wide belt. Caftans were of the most varied types and purposes: everyday, for riding, festive - sewn from expensive fabrics, intricately decorated. A mandatory part of a man's costume was a headdress, in summer - a leather strap, and in winter - a wide variety of hats - leather, felt, fur. Portas, narrowed at the ankle, were made of canvas; noble men wore another one on top - silk or cloth. They were tied together at the waist with a cord called a cup (hence the expression “to keep something in a stash”). The ports were tucked into boots made of colored leather, often embroidered with patterns or wrapped with onuchi (pieces of linen 2.5 meters long), and bast shoes were put on them, with strings pulled through the ears - frills, and the onuchi were wrapped with them. In our minds, all bast shoes are the same. But that's not true. The bast shoes were thick and thin. Dark and light, simple and woven with patterns, there were also elegant ones - made of tinted multi-colored bast.

In Rus', women always covered their heads with a warrior; tearing off a headdress was considered a terrible insult (to lose your hair means to disgrace yourself). Girls braided their hair or wore it loose, secured with a ribbon, braid or hoop made of leather, birch bark, covered with multi-colored fabric.

A festive suit was made for Sundays and patronal feasts, an everyday suit for work at home, in the field and in the forest; Ritual ones were divided into pre-wedding, wedding and funeral - “miserable”. In addition, clothing differed according to age and marital status: girlish and for a young woman (before the birth of her first child), for a mature woman and an old woman. They also dressed smartly on labor holidays: the day of the first furrow, the day of pasture of livestock, the day of the beginning of haymaking and stubble.

One of the most characteristic features of Russian folk clothing is its multi-layered design, which gives the female figure a sculptural monumentality.

In the old days, bright, elegant embroideries played the role of a talisman, so their locations were clearly defined: the collar and wrist trims, the shoulder and bottom of the shirt, and the field of the sleeves. Intensively embroidered, these places seemed to protect a person from evil forces. For embroidery they used flax, hemp, wool, dyed with decoctions of herbs and roots, in addition, multi-colored silks, gold and silver threads. Ancient seams: painting, casting, satin stitch, half cross determined the nature of the embroidery pattern and its connection with the structure of the fabric. The ornaments reflected phenomena closely related to the life of peasants: the change of seasons, bountiful harvests, flowering trees and plants, figures of a woman - the progenitor of all living things, horses, birds, heavenly bodies - the sun and stars. From generation to generation, under the hands of skilled craftswomen, ancient simple patterns were enriched with new technical techniques, and at the same time they conveyed a range of patterns used only in a given area. To decorate shirts, pieces of various fabrics were also used, especially red, which were also filled with embroidery, like the main one. textile. This ancient method of decorating clothes was used in boyar costume, when pieces of precious overseas fabrics, left over from cutting large clothes, or already worn out, were sewn as decoration onto a newly sewn dress. In addition to woven and embroidered patterns and fabric inlays, multi-colored “grass” ribbons, bindweed, lace, sequins, gold and silver braids and braids were used. All this decorative wealth was transformed into a precious work of art by the hands of talented embroiderers.

Even “miserable” shirts were decorated, and here, too, the canons in the use of patterns and colors were observed. So, when mourning for parents, they wore white shirts with white embroidery, and for children - with black ones, made with a cross and a set. Only widowed women had shirts without any “decoration,” which they wore when performing the “plowing” ritual. Widow women were collected from all over the village, and barefoot, bare-haired, dressed only in linen shirts, they had to plow the land around the village with a plow to prevent it from cholera and livestock deaths.

The shirt was used on all occasions in the life of a Russian woman and, having stood the test of time, passing through centuries, freely entered our wardrobe in the form of a variety of one-piece dresses and blouses.

But in the ancient costume, the shirt was rarely worn separately; most often in the northern and central regions of Russia a sundress was worn on top, and in the southern regions - a poneva. Poneva is a type of skirt consisting of three panels of woolen or half-woolen fabric, tied at the waist with a woven narrow belt - gashnik: it was worn only by married women. Poneva was round, that is, sewn, or swinging, consisting of separate canvases. Mostly ponevs were dark blue, dark red, and less often black. Its dark field was divided by squares, and their color and size depended on the traditions of the province, village or hamlet in which the ponevs were woven. Ponevas, like shirts, were divided into festive and everyday. Everyday ones were trimmed along the bottom with a narrow homespun strip of braid or strips of red tape. In the festive ponevs, much attention was paid to the “cludge” - the so-called patch along the hem, in which all the richness of decoration was used to the maximum: multi-color embroidery, braid, tinsel lace made of gilded and silver threads, grass ribbons, bindweed, sequins, glass beads and beads. In round ponies, the seams served not only to connect individual parts, but also as an additional finish. The belt - the “edge” - was woven on a loom from multi-colored woolen threads, its ends fluffed out and threads of beads were woven among the threads.

Over the shirt and blanket they put on an apron - a “curtain”, tied at the back with ribbons - “mutozki”. The intensity of color and decorativeness of the ornament gradually intensified from top to bottom, it was created through inserts of bright chintz, stripes of patterned weaving and embroidery, ribbons, lace, fringe and sparkle.

The ensemble was completed with a shushpan made of wool, half-woolen or canvas fabric with very delicate decoration: mainly connecting seams and edging with embroidery in a red pattern. The costume was complemented by a complex headdress. The entire territory of Russia is characterized by two sharply different categories of headdresses. Girls' dresses, leaving the hair and crown of the head open, had the shape of a wreath-hoop or headband. Women's headdresses were varied, but they all completely hid their hair, which, according to popular belief, had witchcraft powers and could bring misfortune.

The basis of all varieties of South Russian headdresses of the “Magpie” type was a hard forehead piece sewn from quilted canvas, compacted with hemp or birch bark, and worn directly on the hair. Depending on its shape, flat or imitating horns extending back, it was called a kichka or a horned kichka. It was this detail that gave its entire structure one form or another, which was completed with the help of the upper part - a kind of cover made of calico, calico or velvet - Soroka; The back of the head was covered with a rectangular strip of fabric - the back of the head. A complex and multi-layered headdress was created around these three elements. Sometimes it included up to twelve parts, and its weight reached up to five kilograms.

Numerous buttons, metal openwork and with a pattern, glass and simple, were used not only for fastening, but were also included in the decorative row of decorations.

Colored wide belts were also a necessary part of the costume. The girls hung elegant handbags “for gifts” sewn from various scraps to their belts.

The legs were wrapped in onuchas made of white “Svei” cloth or canvas and put on bast shoes woven from elm or linden bast, or white wool stockings “knitted in one needle and leather shoes - cats, which were figuratively punched with copper wire in front and back for decoration. The last place in the costume was occupied by various decorations. Necklaces made of pearls, garnets and gaitanas were worn around the neck in large quantities - stringed beads, amber beads, which, according to legend, brought health and happiness, necklaces made of chains. Large “stuffed cabbage” earrings and smaller, graceful ones were very popular. Delicate, easily movable “guns” - balls woven from goose down, which were worn along with earrings, were also a kind of decoration.

Despite the picturesque multicolor, the integrity of the entire ensemble was achieved mainly by finding color combinations and relationships.

Color, ornament, and symbolism acquired a special meaning in ritual and wedding costumes.

Family hierarchy. Family and marriage relations before the Baptism of Rus' were regulated by customary norms, and the state did not interfere in this area at all. The marriage was concluded by abducting the bride by the groom (“smart”). In the Tale of Bygone Years, this pagan method of marriage is attributed to the Drevlyans, Radimichs and some other tribes. Young people from different villages gathered on the banks of rivers and lakes for games with songs and dances, and there the grooms “kidnapped” the brides. The author of the chronicle - a monk - of course, had a negative attitude towards all pagan customs, but even he did not hide the fact that the “snatch” was carried out by prior agreement of the bride and groom, so the word “kidnapping” here, in general, does not fit. The head of the family, the husband, was a slave in relation to the sovereign, but a sovereign in his own home. All household members, not to mention servants and slaves in the literal sense of the word, were under his complete subordination.

The duties of the husband and father included “educating” the family, which consisted of systematic beatings to which the children and wife were to be subjected. Widows were highly respected in society. In addition, they became full-fledged mistresses of the house. In fact, from the moment of the death of the spouse, the role of head of the family passed to them.

Baptism brought many norms of Byzantine law to Rus', including those relating to family and marriage relations. The family was under the protection of the Orthodox Church, which is why family and marriage relations were regulated mainly by the norms of church law. The marriageable age was set by Byzantine law at 14-15 years for men and 12-13 years for women.

Christianity prohibited polygamy, which was practiced in Rus'. Marital status becomes an obstacle to entering into a new marriage. The charter of Prince Yaroslav threatened a church home (imprisonment in a monastery) for a young wife, because of whom the man’s previous marriage could be shaken. The latter was ordered to live with the old one.

The obstacles to marriage were kinship and property. In an effort to strengthen marriage bonds, church charters prohibited hidden forms of violation of marriage laws: adultery, sexual intercourse between relatives and in-laws. The Church viewed marriage not only as a carnal union, but also as a spiritual one, therefore marriages were allowed only between Christians. Marriage after the Baptism of Rus' should have taken place in the form of a church wedding. Practice also knew the preservation of previous, pagan forms of marriage, which was condemned by law. When an unmarried man and an unmarried woman lived together before marriage, the man was obliged to pay the ransom and marry the girl.

The list of reasons for divorce was almost entirely borrowed from Byzantine laws, in particular from Prochiron, but taking into account Russian traditions. So, the marriage was touched when:
1) it was discovered that the wife had heard from other people about the impending attack on the power and life of the prince, but hid it from her husband;
2) the husband caught his wife with an adulterer or this was proven by hearsay evidence;
3) the wife hatched a plan to poison her husband with a potion or knew about the murder of her husband being prepared by other people, but did not tell him;
4) the wife, without her husband’s permission, attended feasts with strangers and stayed overnight without her husband;
5) the wife attended the games day or night (it didn’t matter) despite her husband’s prohibitions;
6) the wife gave a tip to the thief to steal her husband’s property or she herself stole something or committed theft from the church.

Personal and property relations between parents and children were built on the basis of traditional rules, with changes made by canonical norms. The father's power was unquestionable; he had the right to resolve intra-family disputes and punish children. The law is quite lenient towards illegitimate children. The Church Charter of Yaroslav, of course, punishes a girl who, while living in the house of her father and mother, gave birth to a premarital child. The Charter also punishes a wife who gave birth to an illegitimate child. However, leaving a baby or disposing of a fetus by an unmarried girl is also condemned. The main idea of ​​the legislator is clear: children must be born in marriage, but if an unmarried woman conceives, she must give birth to the baby.

Parenting. The pre-Christian era is characterized by various educational forms. In the 6th century, elements of mentoring activities began to emerge among the ancient Slavic tribes. Under matriarchy, children of both sexes were raised in the mother's house, then the boys moved to the men's house, where they learned practical skills. The upbringing of children was entrusted to mentors who taught worldly wisdom in “youth houses.” Later, the closest relatives (uncles) were involved in raising and educating children. In the absence of such, these functions were performed by the closest neighbors (“nepotism”). Thus, in the VI - VII centuries. among the Eastern Slavs, priority was given to out-of-family education. Since the 8th century, parents stopped giving their children to strangers. From this time on, we can talk about the emergence of an educational function in the family. The main methods of public education were nursery rhymes, ditties, riddles, fairy tales, epics, and lullabies. They revealed the best features of the Slavic folk character: respect for elders, kindness, fortitude, courage, hard work, mutual assistance. They reflected the rich and original history of the Slavic people, strengthening and accompanying it from the first years of life. In the studies of S.D. Babishina, B.A. Rybakov shows a fairly high general cultural level, the original national character of education in pre-Christian Rus'. It is concluded that neither the pedagogical thought nor the education system in Ancient Rus' was a Byzantine copy, and “the general culture of the Russian people was highly pedagogical.”

The Christian era in folk pedagogy began with the illumination of the Baptism of Rus' by the holy Equal-to-the-Apostles Prince Vladimir.

The upbringing of children of the princely family had its own characteristics. Children of the princely family were transferred to another family for upbringing. This form of education is called “feeding”. Feeding is a socio-pedagogical phenomenon in Rus' in the 10th-12th centuries. - characterized as mentoring and responsibility for the moral, spiritual and physical education of young princes. They received their first knowledge at court - at the school of “book learning”, where they studied with the children of boyars and warriors. The first school of “book learning” was opened in Kyiv in 988, then in Novgorod in 1030 and other cities.

In the folk practice of family education in Russia, the main emphasis was on obedience as the main element of honoring God. The logic of reasoning justified it as follows: the husband, as the head of the family, must honor God, and the wife must humble herself before her husband, and children must honor their parents. There was an opinion that the falling away of people from the faith leads to the fact that the husband ceases to honor God, to live according to His will, and the wife disobeys her husband. And as a result, two naughty people grow up with a naughty child.

The main pedagogical principle of this period was the reproduction (transfer) of the way of life into the education system, enshrined in the first literary monuments of Ancient Rus'.

A feature of the educational system in Ancient Rus' with the advent of Christianity was the performance of this function by clergy, which passed to them from respectable neighbors. When the baby was baptized, the godfather was called “godfather” and from then on was considered the second father, revered and respected by the godson. Before God and people, he was responsible for the future of his pupil, his deeds and actions, and in the event of the loss of parents, he replaced them, taking the godson into his house as his own son. But the most important thing that a godfather had to do was to tirelessly pray for his godfather and monitor his spiritual life and spiritual maturity. We can conclude that Christianity contains the prevention of social orphanhood, which is spreading on such a scale in societies that are based on lack of faith and responsibility before God.

Christianity, as a methodology, has significantly influenced the overall spread of knowledge and literacy. The clergy, fulfilling God's will, actively influenced these processes. Thus, Holy Metropolitan Michael of Kiev blessed teachers and gave instructions on how to properly teach. In Novgorod, Smolensk and other cities, schools and colleges were organized at the bishops' departments to teach children to read and write. Gradually, in different cities of Rus', priests began to teach literacy in churches, schools and colleges to children of all classes. Over time, not only priests, but also people of non-church rank - “masters of literacy” - began to teach children. Boys received education from priests or “masters”; women’s education was concentrated mainly in women’s monasteries, of which there were about 10 before the Tatar-Mongol invasion. The daughter of Chernigov Prince Mikhail Vsevolodovich, Efrosinya, opened a women’s school at the monastery, in which she taught children of all classes literacy, writing and singing prayers.

A special place in the system of family education in Ancient Rus' was given to women. A woman was recognized with the right to care for children and raise them in good manners. A woman was supposed to be educated, since she was not only the keeper of the home, but also the first teacher of children in good and righteous deeds.

Home and its organization. Initially, the dwellings were log houses, which were usually located randomly. Inside there was one common room, and adjacent to it were outbuildings for livestock and poultry, for storing agricultural implements, bread, hay, etc. Barns or threshing floors stood not far from the huts.

The desire to create maximum comfort using minimal means determined the laconicism of the interior, the main elements of which were a stove, fixed furniture (benches, beds), movable furniture (table, bench) and various arrangements (chests, boxes).

The ancient Russian stove, entirely included in the hut, was both literally and figuratively a home - a source of warmth and comfort.

Judging by the prostate customs of that time, it can be assumed that huts and mansions were erected without decorations, built of wood. The living quarters were located inside the courtyard and were surrounded by wooden fences with or without bars and a palisade. Of course, the rich did it; and the rest surrounded their homes with fences or left them open. In the middle of the 10th century, stone buildings appeared.

Rural huts built in those days were almost no different from each other: they were low, covered with boards and straw. The townspeople built tall houses and usually lived at the top. The lower part of the house was then allocated for cellars, called medushas, ​​since honey was stored in them, and for storerooms. The house was divided into cages (rooms). It was divided in half by a vestibule, sometimes called a platform. At a distance from the house, special resting rooms, or odrins, were built, whose name indicates that there were beds here that served not only for night sleep, but also for afternoon sleep.

The reception rooms in the grand ducal chambers were called gridnitsa. Boyars, gridniks, centurions, tens' officers and all deliberate people were treated there. In the yard they built towers and huts for pigeons (golubnitsy). Mansions were tall wooden houses, and towers were chambers or rooms located in the upper tier.

The living quarters were illuminated by candles and lanterns. Wax candles burned in the grand ducal and boyar mansions, because wax was in abundance. People of modest means burned ordinary oil, poured into round clay vessels - kaganets or zhirnik.

The walls of the rooms were not decorated with anything, only the rich had oak tables and benches; they stood along the walls and were often covered with carpets. In those days there were no chairs or armchairs. When receiving ambassadors, the Grand Dukes sat on an elevated round seat that replaced the throne; during lunch - on ordinary benches covered with fabrics - silk and velvet. The decorations of the rooms usually consisted of images of holy martyrs and saints, inserted into icon cases and hung in the corner. A lamp glowed in front of them, and on holidays the images were illuminated with wax candles. There was a place of honor under the icons; There was a table covered with a white cloth right there.

Much later, such types of buildings as log huts, mud huts, huts and stone buildings appeared in Rus'.

Food intake standards. Our ancestors, living in patriarchal simplicity, were content with little: half-raw food, meat, roots. In the 11th century they also ate millet, buckwheat and milk; then we learned to cook food. They spared nothing for the guests, showing their hospitality with abundant food.

Honey was boiling at the table - the oldest and favorite drink of all Slavic tribes. Honey was our first drink, and it was made very strong. They didn’t breed bees back then; they lived in the forests themselves. There were honeys: cherry, currant, juniper, mixed, raspberry, princely, boyar, etc.

Our ancestors began to grow grain, and then they began to bake bread and make kvass. In the 10th century it was already in general use, and they even doused themselves with kvass in the bathhouse.

Beer was formerly called “olui”. It was made strong, had different names and colors (light or dark).

In Ancient Rus' there was no shortage of fruits or dishes: fish, game and meat were in abundance.

Feasts were then common, and it was customary for the rich to treat the poor. The grand dukes themselves treated the guests; ate and drank with them.

Pepper came to us from Constantinople and Bulgaria. From there we received almonds, coriander, anise, ginger, cinnamon, bay leaves, cloves, cardamom and other spices that served as seasoning for dishes.

Flour for baking bread was prepared in mills or in millstones by hand.

The common people ate rather poorly: bread, kvass, salt, garlic and onions constituted their main food. Cabbage soup, porridge and oatmeal jelly were being prepared everywhere. Cabbage soup was prepared with a piece of lard or beef. They were a favorite food at court.

Delicious bread, fish - fresh and salted, eggs, garden vegetables: cabbage, cucumbers - pickled, vinegared and fresh, turnips, onions and garlic were considered the best foods.

Since ancient times, our ancestors did not eat veal, hares, pigeons, crayfish and the meat of those animals that were slaughtered by the hands of a woman, considering them defiled.

Domestic servants did the cooking. But if a woman needed to kill a bird for the table, and none of the men were at home, she would go out the gate with a knife and ask the first passerby to do it.

Our ancestors strictly observed fasting: on Mondays, Wednesdays, Fridays and even Saturdays. Even seriously ill people did not dare to eat meat.

Baking bread required knowledge and experience, and a housewife who did not possess this skill was not valued, because it was believed: whose house has good bread is a good housewife. Wheat and coarse breads were baked on sweets, with different images.

Pies were baked with various fillings: eggs, cabbage, fish, mushrooms, rice, etc. Sweet pies prepared with sugar, raisins, jam and spices were called left-handed pies.

They ate several times a day, but usually had breakfast, lunch, afternoon snack and dinner. After a hearty lunch we rested for several hours.

They had breakfast early in the morning, lunch around noon, lunch around four or five o'clock, and dinner after sunset. Then, an hour later, they prayed to God and went to bed.

Family rituals and ceremonies.

BAPTISM. Childbirth and raising children in Rus' have long been surrounded by various beliefs, rituals and traditions. Many centuries ago, as now, expectant mothers sought to be easily relieved of their burden; parents wanted to protect their children from the evil eye, raise them to be hardworking and polite, and teach them to read and write.

Even during pregnancy, women learned from the midwives an ancient spell, which they then read to their children in the womb: “From you, my light, my little drop, I myself will take away all trouble. My love will be your dome, all your patience will be your cradle, and your prayer will be consolation. I’m waiting for you, my light, like the land of dawn, like the grass of dew, like the flowers of rain.” The sound of these gentle words had a beneficial effect on the child, and created the right mood for the mother before giving birth.

The birth of a person has always been considered a great sacrament, for which a woman began to prepare long before the event itself. Already at the wedding, it was customary to wish the newlyweds: “God grant you, Ivan Ivanovich, to get rich, and for you, Marya Petrovna, to be hunchbacked in front.” Midwives who mastered the art of obstetrics enjoyed special honor in Rus'. Not every woman could become a midwife; for example, this was prohibited for those whose own children suffered from some kind of illness. And, of course, great attention was paid to the purity of the midwife’s thoughts, because the lives of both the woman in labor and the new person directly depended on her.

As soon as a woman's contractions began, the midwife took her away from her home (childbirth often took place in a bathhouse). It was believed that one should be wary of “dashing people” or the “evil eye”, which could harm the newborn. Therefore, the presence of anyone, even the closest family members, during childbirth was prohibited. The child's father was ordered to pray fervently in front of the icon and fast.

The day of baptism was chosen randomly. If the child was weak or was in danger of imminent death, he was immediately baptized.

In ancient times, people were named at birth by the name of the saint who fell on the eighth day after birth. Our ancestors had two names, one given at birth, the other (secret) at baptism.

The custom of having godparents has existed in the Christian Church since ancient times. Baptism was immersive. The priest reads incantatory prayers. Then follows the renunciation of the catechumen, or in the case of his youth, his godfather, from Satan. Moreover, when they say “I deny,” they blow and spit three times, turning back; and then, turning to the east, they assure of unity with Christ and read the “Creed.” Then the priest, having anointed him with oil, immerses the catechumen three times in lukewarm, as if summer water, reads a prayer and puts white clothes and a cross on the baptized person.

When putting on white clothes, the troparion is sung. After baptism, chrismation follows; the forehead, eyes, nostrils, lips, ears, chest, hands and soles of the feet are anointed with myrrh.

Then the priest, having walked around the font three times with the person being baptized and his godparents, having read the Gospel and washed the members of the body anointed with myrrh, cuts his hair in a cross shape while reading the prayer; Having sealed them in wax, he gives them to his godfather, who throws them into the font; the water is then poured into a place that cannot be trampled underfoot.

When a baby is baptized, the recipient (godmother) provides him with a shirt and a headdress, and the recipient with a cross; each of them gives the mother and the child a generous gift, which is called “to the tooth”: material, money, whatever they can.

The parents of the person being baptized are not present at the baptism of their child. After baptism, the priest instructs the godparents to take care of the instruction of the godson or goddaughter in the Orthodox faith and in everything that a Christian needs.

In addition to weddings and christenings, in Ancient Rus' there were many rituals and celebrations, both Orthodox and pagan: name day, Red Hill, Radonitsa, Yarilo, Easter, Rusal Week, Trinity Day, Christmastide, Maslenitsa and many others. Each holiday had a certain providential algorithm and was celebrated on a special scale.

Literature

1. "Archeology. Ancient Rus'. Life and culture”, ed. B. A. Rybakova. M. - 1997
2. Belovinsky L.V. “History of Russian material culture”, M. – 2008
3. Ovsyannikov Yu. M. “Pictures of Russian life”, M. - 2000.
4. Rabinovich M. G. “Essays on the material culture of a Russian feudal city,” M. - 1990.
5. Semyonova M. “Life and beliefs of the ancient Slavs”, St. Petersburg. – 2001
6. Tereshchenko A. V. “History of the culture of the Russian people.” M. - 2007