The concept of scientific knowledge, its structure and functions. The essence of the cognition process, its structure and forms

Empirical and theoretical. Scientific knowledge (and knowledge as its result) is an integral developing system with a rather complex structure. The latter expresses the unity of stable relationships between the elements of a given system. The structure of scientific knowledge can be presented in its various sections and, accordingly, in the totality of its specific elements. These can be: object (subject area of cognition); subject of knowledge; means, methods of cognition - its tools (material and spiritual) and conditions for implementation.

With a different cross-section of scientific knowledge, the following elements of its structure should be distinguished: factual material; the results of its initial generalization in concepts; fact-based scientific assumptions (hypotheses); laws, principles and theories “growing” from the latter; philosophical attitudes, methods, ideals and norms of scientific knowledge; sociocultural foundations and some other elements.

Scientific knowledge is a process, i.e. a developing system of knowledge, the main element of which is theory - the highest form of organization of knowledge. Taken as a whole, scientific knowledge includes two main levels: empirical and theoretical. Although they are related, they are different from each other, each of them has its own specifics. What is it?

At the empirical level, living contemplation (sensory cognition) predominates; the rational moment and its forms (judgments, concepts, etc.) are present here, but have a subordinate meaning. Therefore, the object under study is reflected primarily from its external connections and manifestations, accessible to living contemplation and expressing internal relationships.

Any scientific research begins with the collection, systematization and synthesis of facts. The concept of “fact” (from the Latin facturum - done, accomplished) has the following basic meanings:

1. A certain fragment of reality, objective events, results related either to objective reality (“facts of reality”) or to the sphere of consciousness and cognition (“facts of consciousness”).

2. Knowledge about any event, phenomenon, the reliability of which has been proven, i.e. as a synonym for truth.

3. A sentence that captures empirical knowledge, i.e. obtained through observations and experiments.

The second and third of these meanings are summarized in the concept of “scientific fact”. The latter becomes such when it is an element of the logical structure of a specific system of scientific knowledge and is included in this system.

Collection of facts, their primary generalization, description (“logging”) of observed and experimental data, their systematization, classification and other “fact-fixing” activities are characteristic features of empirical knowledge.

Empirical research is aimed directly (without intermediate links) at its object. It masters it with the help of such techniques and means as comparison, observation, measurement, experiment, when an object is reproduced in artificially created and controlled conditions (including mentally), analysis - the division of an object into its component parts, induction - the movement of knowledge from the particular to general, etc.

The theoretical level of scientific knowledge is characterized by the predominance of the rational element and its forms (concepts, theories, laws and other aspects of thinking). Living contemplation, sensory cognition is not eliminated here, but becomes a subordinate (but very important) aspect of the cognitive process.

Theoretical knowledge reflects phenomena and processes from their internal connections and patterns, comprehended through rational processing of empirical knowledge data. This processing is carried out using systems of “higher order” abstractions - such as concepts, inferences, laws, categories, principles, etc.

On the basis of empirical data, here there is a generalization of the objects under study, comprehension of their essence, “internal movement”, the laws of their existence, which constitute the main content of theories - the quintessence of knowledge at this level. The most important task of theoretical knowledge is to achieve objective truth in all its specificity and completeness of content. In this case, such cognitive techniques and means as abstraction - abstraction from a number of properties and relationships of objects, idealization - the process of creating purely mental objects ("point", "ideal gas", etc.), synthesis - combining the obtained as a result of the analysis of elements into a system, deduction is the movement of knowledge from the general to the particular, the ascent from the abstract to the concrete, etc.

A characteristic feature of theoretical knowledge is its focus on oneself, intrascientific reflection, i.e. study of the process of cognition itself, its forms, techniques, methods, conceptual apparatus, etc. On the basis of theoretical explanation and known laws, prediction and scientific foresight of the future is carried out.

The empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge are interconnected, the boundary between them is conditional and fluid. Empirical research, revealing new data through observations and experiments, stimulates theoretical knowledge (which generalizes and explains them), and poses new, more complex tasks. On the other hand, theoretical knowledge, developing and concretizing its own content on the basis of empirics, opens up new, broader horizons for empirical knowledge, orients and directs it in the search for new facts, contributes to the improvement of its methods and means, etc.

Science as an integral dynamic system of knowledge cannot develop successfully without being enriched with new empirical data, without generalizing them into a system of theoretical means, forms and methods of knowledge. At certain points in the development of science, the empirical turns into the theoretical and vice versa. However, it is unacceptable to absolutize one of these levels to the detriment of the other.

Empiricism reduces scientific knowledge as a whole to its empirical level, belittling or completely rejecting theoretical knowledge. “Scholastic theorizing” ignores the significance of empirical data, rejects the need for a comprehensive analysis of facts as a source and basis for theoretical constructions, and is divorced from real life. Its product is illusory-utopian, dogmatic constructions - such as, for example, the concept of “the introduction of communism in 1980.” or "theory" of developed socialism.

Problem - hypothesis - theory. Considering theoretical knowledge as its highest and most developed form, one should first of all determine its structural components. The main ones include the problem, hypothesis and theory, which at the same time act as key points in the construction and development of knowledge at its theoretical level.

A problem is a form of knowledge, the content of which is something that has not yet been known by man, but that needs to be known. In other words, this is knowledge about ignorance, a question that arose in the course of cognition and requires an answer. A problem is not a frozen form of knowledge, but a process that includes two main points, two stages in the movement of knowledge - its formulation and solution. Correct derivation of problematic knowledge from previous facts and generalizations, the ability to correctly pose a problem is a necessary prerequisite for its successful solution.

According to K. Popper, science begins not with observations, but with problems, and its development is a transition from one problem to another - from less profound to more profound. Problems arise, in his opinion, either as a consequence of a contradiction in a particular theory, or when two different theories collide, or as a result of a collision between a theory and observations.

Thus, a scientific problem is expressed in the presence of a contradictory situation (appearing in the form of opposing positions), which requires appropriate resolution. The determining influence on the way of posing and solving a problem is, firstly, the nature of thinking of the era in which the problem is formulated, and, secondly, the level of knowledge about those objects that the problem concerns. Each historical era has its own characteristic forms of problem situations.

Scientific problems should be distinguished from non-scientific (pseudo-problems) - for example, the “problem” of creating a perpetual motion machine. The solution to a specific problem is an essential moment in the development of knowledge, during which new problems arise, and certain conceptual ideas, including hypotheses, are put forward. Along with theoretical ones, there are also practical problems.

A hypothesis is a form of knowledge containing an assumption formulated on the basis of a number of facts, the true meaning of which is uncertain and requires proof. Speaking about the relationship of hypotheses to experience, we can distinguish three types:

Hypotheses that arise directly to explain experience;

Hypotheses in the formulation of which experience plays a certain, but not exclusive role;

Hypotheses that arise based on the generalization of only previous conceptual constructs.

In modern methodology, the term “hypothesis” is used in two main meanings: a form of knowledge characterized by problematicity and unreliability; method of developing scientific knowledge.

Hypothetical knowledge is probable, not reliable, and requires verification and justification. In the course of proving the put forward hypotheses, some of them become a true theory, others are modified, clarified and specified, others are discarded and turn into delusions if the test gives a negative result. Putting forward a new hypothesis, as a rule, is based on the results of testing the old one, even if these results were negative.

So, for example, the quantum hypothesis put forward by Planck, after testing, became a scientific theory, and the hypotheses about the existence of caloric, phlogiston, ether, etc., without finding confirmation, were refuted and became delusions. Both the periodic law discovered by D.I. Mendeleev and the theory of Darwin and others have passed the hypothesis stage. The role of hypotheses in modern astrophysics, geology and other sciences is great.

The decisive test of the truth of a hypothesis is ultimately practice in all its forms, but the logical (theoretical) criterion of truth also plays a certain (auxiliary) role in proving or refuting hypothetical knowledge. A tested and proven hypothesis becomes a reliable truth and becomes a scientific theory.

Theory is the most developed form of scientific knowledge, providing a holistic reflection of the natural and essential connections of a certain area of reality. Examples of this form of knowledge are the classical mechanics of I. Newton, the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin, the theory of relativity of A. Einstein, the theory of self-organizing integral systems (synergetics), etc.

Any theory is a holistic, developing system of true knowledge (including elements of error), which has a complex structure and performs a number of functions. In modern scientific methodology, the following main elements of the theory are distinguished:

1. Initial foundations - fundamental concepts, principles, laws, equations, axioms, etc.

2. Idealized object - an abstract model of the essential properties and connections of the objects being studied (for example, “absolutely black body”, “ideal gas”, “absolutely rigid body”, etc.).

3. Logic of theory - formal, aimed at clarifying the structure of ready-made knowledge, at describing its formal connections and elements, and dialectics - aimed at studying the relationship and development of categories, laws, principles and other forms of theoretical knowledge.

4. A set of laws and statements derived from the principles of a given theory in accordance with certain principles.

5. Philosophical attitudes, value, sociocultural foundations.

The key element of the theory is the law, therefore it can be considered as a system of laws that express the essence of the object being studied in all its integrity and specificity. (The law was discussed above).

One of the main internal sources of theory development is the contradiction between its formal and substantive aspects. Through the latter, the theory “enters” certain philosophical attitudes of the researcher, his methodological principles and worldview and life-meaning guidelines. These factors, as well as socio-historical and political circumstances, strongly influence (positively or negatively) the process of formation of theoretical knowledge (especially the humanities) and the development of science in general.

The main functions of the theory include the following:

1. Synthetic function. Any theory combines and synthesizes individual reliable knowledge into a single, holistic system. Thus, a theory is an idea-synthesis, the core of which is a scientific law - an internal essential connection between phenomena that determines their necessary development.

2. Explanatory function. On the basis of known objective laws, the theory explains the phenomena of its subject area. Namely: it reveals causal and other dependencies, the variety of connections of a given phenomenon, its essential characteristics and properties, its origin and development, its system of contradictions, etc.

3. Methodological function. Theory is a means of achieving new knowledge in all its forms. On its basis, various methods, methods and techniques of research activity are formulated. For example, the theory of dialectics is developed into a set of principles of the dialectical method, the general theory of systems serves as the basis for the system-structural and structural-functional methods, etc.

4. Predictive - the function of foresight. Based on theoretical ideas about the current state of known phenomena, conclusions are drawn about the existence of previously unknown facts, objects or their properties, connections between phenomena, etc. For example, D.I. Mendeleev’s prediction on the basis of the periodic law of chemical elements and their properties that were not yet discovered then. Prediction about the future state of phenomena (as opposed to those that exist but have not yet been identified) is called scientific foresight. Forecasting is a highly specialized form of foresight aimed at identifying specific prospects for the development of a certain phenomenon or process, indicating quantitative characteristics (timing, pace, etc.). For example, weather forecasts, crop prospects, fertility forecasts, etc.

5. Practical function. The ultimate purpose of any theory is to be translated into practice, to be a “guide to action” for changing reality. Therefore, it is quite fair to say that there is nothing more practical than a good theory.

Thus, a theory (regardless of its type) has the following main features:

1. Theory is not individual scientific principles, but their totality, an integral organic developing system. The unification of knowledge into a theory is carried out primarily by the subject of research itself, by its laws.

2. Not every set of provisions about the subject being studied is a theory. To turn into a theory, knowledge must reach a certain degree of maturity in its development. Namely: when it not only describes a certain set of facts, but also explains them, i.e. when knowledge reveals the causes, contradictions and patterns of phenomena.

3. For a theory, justification and proof of the provisions included in it are mandatory: if there is no justification, there is no theory.

4. Theoretical knowledge should strive to explain the widest possible range of phenomena, to continuously deepen knowledge about them.

5. The nature of a theory depends on the degree of validity of its defining principle, reflecting the fundamental regularity of a given subject.

6. An important role when choosing theories is played by the degree of their testability: the higher it is, the greater the chances of choosing a good and reliable theory. The so-called “relative acceptability criterion,” according to Popper, gives preference to the theory that: communicates the greatest amount of information, i.e. has deeper content; is logically more strict; has greater explanatory and predictive power; can be more rigorously tested by comparing predicted facts with observations.

Interaction of scientific theory and practice. Theoretical knowledge is such only when it, precisely as a system of knowledge, reliably and adequately reflects a certain aspect of practice, a certain subject area. Moreover, such reflection is not passive, but active, creative, expressing objective laws. The most essential requirement for any scientific theory is its correspondence to real facts in their interrelation, without any exception.

The theory must not only reflect objective reality as it is now, but also reveal its trends, the main directions of its development from the past to the present, and then the future. Therefore, theory cannot be something immutable, given once and for all, but must constantly develop, deepen, improve, etc., express in its content the development of practice.

The most practical theory is in its most mature state. Therefore, it is always necessary to keep it at the highest scientific level, to develop it deeply and comprehensively, generalizing the latest processes and phenomena of life and practice. Only a complete and highly scientific solid theory (and not empirical, everyday knowledge) can be a guide for the appropriate form of practical activity. Not at any, but at a fairly mature stage of its development, science becomes the theoretical basis of practical activity, which, in turn, must reach a certain high enough level to make the systematic (and economically justified) practical application of science possible.

An essential feature of a developed theory is a targeted, systematic analysis of its constituent methods, laws, and other forms of thinking from the point of view of their form (structure), content, its deepening, development, etc. “Conceptual creativity” is an attributive characteristic of mature theoretical research, as well as an ever-deepening reflection on its methodological problems, skillful handling of concepts, methods, techniques of cognition, its norms and regulations.

A theory (even the deepest and most meaningful) by itself cannot change anything. It becomes a material force only when it masters the masses. To implement ideas, people are required who must use practical force and whose energy embodies theory into reality, objectifies certain scientific ideas, and implements them in certain material forms.

The practice of people who have mastered theory as a program of activity is the objectification of theoretical knowledge. In the process of objectifying theory in practice, people not only create something that nature itself did not create, but at the same time enrich their theoretical knowledge, test and certify its truth, develop and improve themselves.

The practical implementation of knowledge requires not only those who will translate theory into practice, but also the necessary means of implementation - both objective and subjective. These are, in particular, forms of organization of social forces, certain social institutions, necessary technical means, etc. This also includes forms and methods of cognition and practical action, ways and means of solving pressing theoretical and practical problems, etc.

The materialization of theory in practice should not be a one-time act (with its eventual extinction), but a process during which, instead of already implemented theoretical positions, new, more meaningful and developed ones appear, which pose more complex tasks for practice, require new forms and conditions of their objectification.

Successful implementation of theoretical knowledge in practice is ensured only when people are convinced of the truth of the knowledge that they are going to apply in life. Without transforming an idea into a personal conviction, a person’s faith, the practical implementation of theoretical ideas is impossible.

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INTRODUCTION

1 How do philosophers answer the question whether the world is knowable?

2 Cognition as a reflection of reality

3 What types of knowledge do philosophers distinguish?

4 Human cognitive abilities. Analysis of forms of cognition as interacting stages of the cognitive process

5 Personalistic concept of cognition

5.1 Modern irrationalism

5.2 Beliefs in the cognitive process. The relationship between knowledge, faith and belief

6Scientific knowledge

6.1 Main features of scientific knowledge

6.2 Specifics of cognition of social phenomena

6.3 Structure and levels of scientific knowledge

6.4 Levels of scientific knowledge

6.5 Methodological knowledge

CONCLUSION

INTRODUCTION

COGNITION is the process of spiritual exploration of the world, aimed at searching for truth. Among the most important ideological issues that philosophy has addressed throughout its history, one of the central places was occupied by problems of knowledge. Man is an inquisitive creature. He is able to be surprised by the world. It is always important for a person to know what cognitive capabilities he has: is he capable of developing adequate knowledge that allows him to live and act in the real world? Are there any obstacles to obtaining such adequate knowledge? What are the boundaries of cognitive activity or is the process of cognition limitless? By what means is the cognitive process carried out? Of course, cruel reality dictates its own laws, which it would be better to master as quickly as possible. However, knowledge has other, deeper sources. Not only a practical need, but also something more significant forced a person to strain his mind, painfully comprehend the reality around us. Before mastering the world, you had to love it. The world appeared before man in all its enchanting attractiveness. Love, many philosophers believe, is what turned out to be the prerequisite and beginning of the process of cognition. Genuine knowledge is not at all an advance towards abstract cold truths, cruel statements. Cognition involves not only the mind, but also our emotions. Knowledge is consistent with moral precepts.

Cognition as a reflection of reality. The structure of cognitive activity reveals its synchronicity with the dynamics of practice. The first important condition for cognition is the presence, first of all, of a cognizing subject with his needs, interests, with his goals and that which is cognized - the object of cognition. The object of knowledge is that to which knowledge is directed, about which knowledge needs to be obtained. Cognition in this sense is the “transfer” of the content of an object into consciousness, or rather the transformation of objective content into the content of consciousness.

An essential condition for cognition is what connects the subject and object of cognition. The cognitive attitude of the subject to the object presupposes the presence of some common basis on which their relationship and interaction occurs, i.e. such a connecting link that makes knowledge possible. Cognition arose and exists due to the fact that it serves in a certain way the process of human life, i.e. has social value. The social function of cognition determines its necessity as a special type of human activity. Thus, the purpose for which cognition is carried out (i.e. its social role) is a certain condition of cognition. This point is all the more important because it essentially determines one’s own the goal of knowledge is truth.

Society is a consumer of truth and error, but the consumption of truth lies at the heart of the very existence of society, which is the production and reproduction of material life. A person’s connection with the world is carried out directly through the senses. Therefore, sensory experience ( sensualcognition) is an integral part of the cognitive process. It cannot be excluded from knowledge and theoretical level, consisting in the appropriate logical processing of sensory data, the result of which is penetration into the hidden, essential connections of things. Cognition is also impossible without the use of certain means - methods of cognition that serve to solve various cognitive problems.

Thanks to them, the movement of knowledge is carried out from the individual to the general, from the immediate to the indirect, from phenomenon to essence. Human knowledge is impossible without language. This follows from the role of cognition within social practice. Language ensures the recording of the results of cognition (i.e., it brings them to a public form, makes them public property). Language also ensures the continuity of the process of cognition, and therefore the possibility of it as a socially valuable phenomenon. And, finally, like any social phenomenon, knowledge undergoes a process of development that corresponds, in general, to the historical development of practice. Enrichment, an increase in knowledge is the result of this development. The historical development of the cognitive process constitutes its essential moment, inseparable from its nature and social function.

In the process of interaction between people and nature, the formation of organs and abilities of human cognition occurs. The formation of a subject occurs as the self-generation of a person in the process of practical activity. The problem of the connection between subject and object is also resolved through practice. The relationship between man and the world is carried out primarily through practical activities.

Practice is important to verify the objectivity of knowledge. The criterion of truth establishes (detects, brings to our consciousness) the adequacy (or inadequacy) of knowledge to its object. He simultaneously establishes the extent to which knowledge corresponds to its own goal, its purpose, its “concept.” The criterion of truth substantiates knowledge in a special way - from the point of view of its own highest measure, which is truth. Whether the content of knowledge coincides with the objective content can be checked in activity, which, including the moment of universality, at the same time has the status of immediate reality. Knowledge is inextricably linked with freedom. Freedom is a manifestation of the very nature of man - what he is and what he is capable of, overcoming obstacles and limitations rooted in his finitude. Freedom is not so much a fact as an opportunity - the ability to resist fate, the opportunity to step over the boundaries of real life. A person is always surrounded by many restrictions. However, he seems to push away from them to realize his freedom.

In man, in his inherent eternal incompleteness and freedom of choice, lies the fact that his reality is a potential possibility. He is not yet what he is, this is what he must become, his life activity is a continuous process of formation and development of human essence. What has become as a result immediately turns into a prerequisite for further development, further forward movement into the future. Therefore, a person, only by developing his cognitive abilities, means, capabilities and realizing the results of the cognitive process in free creative activity, can become a real subject of social reality, the creator of his own happiness.

1 How do philosophers answer the question whether the world is knowable?

cognition scientific personalistic concept

The problem of the knowability of the world is the question of whether our knowledge of the world corresponds to the world itself and whether there is something fundamentally unknowable. Philosophical positions on this issue are grouped around two main approaches: epistemological optimism and agnosticism.

The term agnosticism comes from the Greek word “beyond knowledge.” The position of agnosticism in its classical form was formulated by I. Kant. Its distinctive feature is the recognition of the fundamentally unknowable. Agnosticism divides the world into two components: phenomena and essences. A person can cognize phenomena, but essences remain inaccessible to knowledge. Thus, agnosticism does not claim that the world is completely unknowable. It is worth paying attention to the fact that I. Kant raised the question of the possibilities of scientific knowledge, and not knowledge in general. Science, from his point of view, always studies only phenomena and their relationships. It does not answer the question of what is behind the phenomena. In the broadest sense of the word, agnosticism can include sophistry, skepticism and conventionalism, since each of these areas in its own way recognizes the limitations of knowledge and the existence of the fundamentally unknowable. Fallibilism can be considered as a type of agnosticism - an attitude shared by representatives of pragmatism and postpositivism. The principle of fallibilism (from Latin - error-prone, unreliable) states that all the knowledge accumulated by mankind is a collection of errors; one cannot be mistaken only in the fact that all our knowledge is erroneous.

The term epistemological optimism is conditional; it denotes the point of view according to which there is no fundamental limitation of knowledge, the objective world is knowable. Epistemological optimism is inherent in everyday consciousness, which has no doubt that knowledge is a more or less true reflection of the objective world. The position of epistemological optimism has its theoretical formulation mainly within the framework of materialist teachings, the most developed of which, of course, is the concept of dialectical materialism. Answering positively the question of the knowability of the world, dialectical materialism is based on the ancient materialist tradition of understanding knowledge as a reflection of the objective world and on the dialectical method. Instead of contrasting an unknowable essence and a knowable phenomenon, characteristic of agnosticism, dialectical materialism develops the idea of their dialectical unity: the essence is, the phenomenon is essential.

Recognizing that the essence of a thing makes itself known in a phenomenon, dialectical materialism affirms the fundamental knowability of the essence, and therefore of the entire objective world. The existence of the unknown indicates, from the point of view of epistemological optimism, only the historical limitations of human knowledge. Modern epistemological optimism is based on obvious achievements of science that are being implemented in practice. The sphere of interests of science includes processes that were previously inaccessible to scientific knowledge; the scientific picture of the world is constantly being refined and deepened. All this supports an optimistic belief in the possibilities of scientific knowledge. At the same time, it should be recognized that the outstanding achievements of modern science and scientific and technological progress do not remove the philosophical question of whether the possibilities of science are limitless. A number of metaphysical problems, such as, for example, the question of God, freedom and immortality of the soul, as in the time of I. Kant, go beyond the capabilities of scientific knowledge.

2 Cognitionas a reflection of reality

One of the branches of philosophy epistemology, (theory of knowledge), studies such problems as the nature of knowledge, its capabilities and boundaries, the relationship between knowledge and reality, the subject and object of knowledge, the general prerequisites of the cognitive process, conditions for the reliability of knowledge, criteria for its truth, forms and levels of knowledge, and a number of others are explored problems.

Clarifying the objective-logical foundations (norms, attitudes, regulations, sources) of cognitive activity, epistemology studies the composition, dynamics, and conceptual content of the elements and forms that form it. On this difficult and in all respects rewarding path, epistemology achieves an understanding of what cognition in principle is as a generic essence, as well as an understanding of the nature of those types and types of structures with which it (cognition) is associated and which induce cognitive acts as meaningfully fruitful processes.

According to this interpretation of the goals of epistemology, it acts as a fundamental science that uses the traditional evidentiary tools of the sciences and provides a voluminous description and explanation of actual cognitive procedures and techniques (taken in an objective, rather than psychological or psychophysical sense) that lead to knowledge. The foregoing allows us to assert that in the broadest, undivided sense, epistemology is engaged in the constitution of the fact of knowledge. To constitute knowledge means to demonstrate its possibility, arising from the internal potentials of cognition. The term "gnoseology" comes from the Greek words "gnosis" - knowledge and "logos" - concept, teaching, i.e. doctrine (concept) about knowledge. In modern literature, this term is used in two main meanings: 1) as a doctrine about the general mechanisms and patterns of human cognitive activity, about “knowledge in general,” regardless of its specific forms and types; 2) as a philosophical concept, the subject of research of which is scientific knowledge in its specific characteristics. However, in a number of cases, the term “epistemology” and the theory of knowledge coincide in content and are identical.

In developing its problems, in developing its own conceptual content, epistemology must “squeeze” the latter in the form of “quintessence” from all its named and other sources. At the same time, it is unacceptable to either underestimate (let alone completely ignore) or absolutize any one of them. So, for example, to build a theory of knowledge only and exclusively on the basis of mathematical analysis (Descartes) or natural science knowledge (logical positivism) means to act one-sidedly, and therefore erroneously.

Knowledge (and its theoretical image) is always determined by the needs of society and therefore must take on a specific form at each of the qualitatively different stages of social development. At the same time, in terms of their content, they must absorb everything new that each of them brings with them. Thus, the development of epistemological ideas at the end of the twentieth century. It is determined by the fact that it occurs in the conditions of the information society and, in particular, is based on the data of the so-called “postclassical” science. This stage of development is characterized by: changes in objects of research (they are increasingly becoming integral, self-developing “human-sized” systems), widespread dissemination of ideas and methods of synergetics - the science of such systems; methodological pluralism; bridging the gap between the object and subject of cognition; connection of the objective world and the human world; the introduction of time into all sciences, their deep dialectization and historicization.

As for the methods by which epistemology studies its subject, i.e. cognitive attitude to reality in the totality of all its aspects, then at the present stage of its development methodological pluralism is becoming more and more characteristic. In other words, she has the right and the obligation to use any methods and techniques that will be most effective in a given cognitive situation. These are, first of all, philosophical methods - dialectical, phenomenological, etc. These are general logical methods: analysis, synthesis, idealization, induction, deduction, analogy, etc. These are also empirical and theoretical means and techniques characteristic of special sciences that can be used in theory of knowledge, taking into account its specifics. All these and other methods should be used in epistemological research not separately, but in their close unity and dynamic interaction.

Currently, the expansion of the subject of the theory of knowledge occurs simultaneously with the updating and enrichment of its methodological arsenal: epistemological analysis and argumentation begin to include in a certain way rethought results and methods of special sciences about cognition and consciousness, social and cultural disciplines.

3 What types of knowledge do philosophers distinguish?

Knowledge is the result of the cognitive process. In a broad sense, the glory of knowledge is all the information obtained about the subject of knowledge. The study of knowledge proceeds, as a rule, on the basis of a comparison of knowledge and opinion, knowledge and faith, scientific and extra-scientific knowledge, knowledge and understanding.

The ancient tradition answered the question of what knowledge is by comparing it with opinion. It was believed that opinion is based on feeling, therefore it concerns individual objects and is characterized by variability and relativity. Unlike opinion, knowledge is rational in origin. It captures not individual, but general properties, due to which knowledge has a universal character and immutability. Knowledge, understood in this way, was in fact identified with truth.

Ancient and, in particular, medieval philosophy raised the question of the difference between knowledge and faith. In this context, knowledge was associated with evidence that was necessarily inherent in it. Faith does not require proof, and thus it is fundamentally different from knowledge.

In modern times, under the influence of the successes of the natural sciences, knowledge is interpreted as scientific knowledge. The concepts of knowledge, truth and science were actually identified. Within the framework of this tradition, problems of the specifics of scientific knowledge and the criteria for distinguishing it from non-scientific knowledge have been raised. Currently, these issues are addressed by the philosophy of science. At the same time, modern philosophy is gradually overcoming the tradition of identifying knowledge with science. Today, along with science, other forms of spiritual activity are also considered as relatively independent ways of cognition. In accordance with this, in addition to science, such types of knowledge as ordinary, artistic, figurative, gaming, mythological, religious, and philosophical are distinguished.

Already in the early stages of history there was everyday practical knowledge, providing basic information about nature, as well as about the people themselves, their living conditions, communication, and social connections. The basis of this form was the practice of people. The sphere of ordinary cognition includes common sense, intuitive beliefs, and premonitions. Ordinary knowledge is focused on the world of everyday experience and practical usefulness. As a rule, common sense is considered as the quintessence of everyday knowledge, which is a set of normative judgments and assessments, adherence to which ensures the coordination of a person’s personal aspirations with the social conditions in which he lives. Common sense judgments are usually accepted as truths because they appear to have equal value for all people. Because common sense judgments seem unshakable and obvious, some philosophers consider them as the basis of philosophizing. For example, R. Descartes considered it possible to build philosophical and scientific reasoning based on common sense. At the same time, many philosophers emphasized the incompatibility of philosophical and everyday knowledge. G. Hegel drew attention to the fact that at the everyday level, philosophizing is often called expressing the truths of common sense. However, philosophy proceeds from other foundations that are not obvious to ordinary consciousness with its striving for practical benefit. Ordinary reason in itself is not ready for philosophizing, therefore ordinary knowledge, as a rule, is incompatible with philosophical knowledge.

One of the historically first forms - play cognition as an important element of activity not only for children, but also for adults. During the game, the individual carries out active cognitive activity, acquires a large amount of new knowledge, absorbs the wealth of culture - business games, sports games, etc.

Played an important role mythological knowledge. Its specificity is that it is a fantastic reflection of reality. Recently, it has become clear that mythological thinking is not just an unbridled game of fantasies, but a kind of modeling of the world, which allows us to record and transmit the experience of generations. A powerful impetus for the study of mythological knowledge was given by structuralism. Thanks to the efforts of the structuralists, myth is no longer seen today as the result of primitive thinking. It has a specific logic and rationality, which is revealed, in particular, by structural-functional analysis.

Artistically figurative the type of knowledge received its greatest expression in art. Artistically mastering reality in its various forms (painting, music, theater), art simultaneously cognizes the world, and man creates it, including according to the laws of beauty.

4 Human cognitive abilities. Analysis of forms of cognition as interactingstages of the cognitive process

Already in ancient philosophy, there was a division of human cognitive abilities into three groups: feelings, reason, reason. Feelings, or more precisely, sense organs, serve as a source of sensations. Reason and reason represent the ability to operate with concepts. At the same time, reason makes judgments about finite things, and reason thinks about the absolute and infinite.

In accordance with this, sensory knowledge was understood as sensations obtained through the senses, and conceptual knowledge produced by reason and reason was considered rational. The tradition of dividing cognitive abilities into three groups was further developed by many philosophers, especially by I. Kant. At the same time, a simpler division of cognitive abilities into feeling and reason is more common. In accordance with this, two ways of cognition are distinguished: sensory and rational.

Within the framework of the now traditional comparison of sensory and rational cognition, their forms (stages) are usually studied. Sensory cognition occurs in the forms of sensation, perception and representation. The stages of rational knowledge are concept, judgment and inference. When assessing this tradition, it is necessary to pay attention to modern ideas that at least part of the sensations are formed under the influence of the linguistic-conceptual structure of consciousness. Under these conditions, the opposition of sensory and rational cognition, as well as the description of the process of cognition as a transition from living contemplation (sensory cognition) to abstract thinking (rational cognition) looks like an excessive simplification of the picture of the cognitive process. It seems more correct to consider the sensual and rational as human cognitive abilities, and not as independent ways of cognition.

Human knowledge initially exists in the form of certain images of consciousness. But these images are not the same in the nature of their formation and in the methods of movement; they have their own specifics. And, therefore, the question arises of how the structure of knowledge develops.

Historically and logically, the first stage of the cognitive process is sensual cognition. It is directly included in the material and sensory activity of people and is connected by direct contacts of a person with the outside world.

The simplest, most elementary form of sensory knowledge is sensation. A sensation arises in the human brain as a result of the impact of any objects on the senses. The material impact of this or that thing, generating a material reaction of the body, is simultaneously transformed into a new quality that is not inherent in the object itself - its subjective image. Thus, sensation is a subjective ideal image of an object, since it reflects and refracts the impact of the object through the prism of human consciousness. It is through sensation that a person perceives all primary information about the objective world.

Feeling- this is a sensory image of individual aspects, processes, phenomena of the objective world. Due to the active activity of human consciousness, images of sensation, entering the human brain, undergo active processing and turn into images of perception.

Perception- this is a holistic sensory image of objects, processes given through observation. Perception arises and exists in consciousness as a form of active synthesis of various manifestations of objects and processes, which is inextricably linked with other acts of cognitive activity. It is the process of perception that is active and creative.

Holistic sensory images of perception as a result of intense interaction between a person and the environment accumulate in his consciousness. The accumulation and preservation of these images in the human mind is carried out through memory. It is no coincidence that philosophers and psychologists call memory a “storehouse of images.” Thanks to memory, we can retain and reproduce a complete image even when it is not directly given to us. In this case, a more complex form of sensory cognition—representation—functions. Performance- is an indirect holistic sensory image of reality, preserved and reproduced in consciousness through memory.

Sensations, perceptions and ideas in abstraction can be considered as successive stages in the formation of images of a sensory reflection of reality. But in the real process of cognition, they act interconnectedly, influencing each other and experiencing the influence of rational forms of cognition and logical thinking.

Rational cognition, logical thinking is considered in dialectical materialism as the second higher level of knowledge. Thinking- This is an active process of cognitive activity of consciousness. It operates at a level where there is no direct contact with objective reality. Thinking is based on the results of sensory knowledge and provides generalized knowledge. Proponents of dialectical materialism give this definition of thinking. Thinking is a purposeful, indirect and generalized reflection in the human mind of the essential properties and relationships of reality.

Thinking occurs in three main forms: concepts, judgments and inferences. Concept- this is a form of thought that reflects the general, essential properties, connections and relationships of reality. The concept and representation are brought together by the fact that their content is generalized and indirect. But there are also differences between them. Representation provides a visual image of reality. The content of the concept is not clear. The representation reflects the general characteristics of objects, while in the concept the level of generalization is brought to the point of highlighting the essential.

Concepts arise and exist in the human mind in a certain connection, in the form of judgments. To think about something in concepts means to judge it, to identify its specific connections and relationships. Judgment- this is a form of thought in which, through connection, something is affirmed (or denied) about something.

A person can come to this or that judgment through direct observation of a fact or indirectly through inference. Inference- this is a form of thought in the form of reasoning, during which a new judgment (which is called a conclusion or consequence) is derived from one or more judgments called premises. For example, of two judgments 1) “all elementary particles have mass”; 2) “X is a newly discovered elementary particle,” the conclusion logically follows that “X has mass.”

Dialectical materialism, highlighting the sensual and rational as two stages of knowledge, without opposing them to each other. Its representatives argue that these stages are in constant interaction, forming an inextricable unity of the cognitive process. Rational forms of knowledge are impossible without forms of sensory knowledge. This is where they get their source material. In turn, at the level of human consciousness, sensory cognition is influenced by rational cognition. Sensations, perceptions, and ideas of a person carry within themselves the characteristics of all spiritual and intellectual activity of consciousness.

The tradition of contrasting sensory and rational knowledge is based on the fundamental difference between sensation and concept, which was already discovered by ancient philosophers. Sensations belong only to a specific subject and relate only to individual properties of objects; they are changeable and transitory. At the same time, concepts are common to a number of subjects, they record the general properties of objects, due to which they are more stable and even seem unchanged, since changes in concepts can only be noticed by applying the principle of historicism and considering large periods of time. The sharp contrast between the sensory and the rational led to the question of which of the two types of knowledge is reliable. In its final form, the dilemma of sensory and rational knowledge was expressed in the opposition of sensationalism and rationalism of the New Age. Sensualists believed that all knowledge is produced on the basis of sensations, therefore sensory knowledge is reliable. 1 Rationalists did not deny the role of sensations in knowledge, but at the same time they believed that it is reason that gives knowledge the character of universality and necessity. Since reason produces knowledge and not opinion, rational rather than sensory knowledge is valid. Based on the sensationalistic idea that all knowledge comes from sensations, skeptics conclude that the world is unknowable. The relativity of sensory knowledge, its belonging to a specific subject indicates, from the point of view of skepticism, the unreliability of any knowledge, the absence or inaccessibility of truth as such.

One of the main problems that arose in philosophy in connection with the study of the sensory ability of cognition is the question of the correspondence of sensations to the sources that cause them. Materialistic sensationalism, represented by such philosophers as, for example, J. La Mettrie, C. Helvetius, P. Holbach, consider sensations as reflections of the properties of objects. Idealistic sensationalism, developed, in particular, by D. Berkeley and D. Hume, believes that the question of the correspondence of sensations to the external world remains open; it is impossible to prove that sensations reliably reflect the properties of objects. Developing the idea of the incommensurability of sensations and objects, G. Helmholtz proposed to interpret sensations as signs of objects, the meanings of which are the objects themselves. From this point of view, like any sign, sensations do not reflect, but only designate an object.

Modern developments of the problem of the sensory and rational consider human senses as the result of biological and social evolution and are based on concrete scientific results of the study of consciousness.

5 Pepersonalistic concept of cognition

5 .1 Modern irrationalism

The methodology of rationalism is dominant in the theory of knowledge. In line with rationalism, he solves the problems of epistemology and dialectical materialism. However, in modern philosophy there is a different approach to the problems of knowledge, which rejects the methodology of rationalism. This approach is represented by a number of schools of modern irrationalism. Representatives of irrationalism criticize the basic principles of the epistemology of rationalism for their abstract, inherently inhumane nature. They argue that in the rationalistic model of cognition, the object of cognition acts as something alien to the consciousness of the researcher, and the mental activity of the knowing subject is taken into account as a technique, a way of operating with objects, from which one can abstract as soon as the result is obtained. Moreover, it does not matter to the cognizing subject - the scientist - what application this result will find. This is beyond the scope of the researcher's interest. The process of cognition itself, the search for objective truth, is important. The term “objective” in their interpretation takes on a connotation of anti-subjectivity, anti-humanity, and a soulless attitude towards reality.

Representatives of irrationalism demand a radical revision of the basic principles of traditional rationalistic epistemology. They oppose the rationalistic tradition of breaking the cognitive act into subjective-objective relations.

Therefore, the efforts of irrationalists are aimed at overcoming this traditional polarization of the cognitive act. An example of the implementation of this idea is the personalistic concept of cognition as “involvement.” Cognition from these positions is considered as an all-encompassing movement that unites the subject with the entire surrounding world. It appears simultaneously as the direct existence of the “I”, and as its action, and as the knowledge of this action. “With this approach, the cognizing subject,” says the founder of French personalism, E. Mounier, “no longer acts as pure consciousness or impersonal being, but as a person who lives and acts: I think with my body, with my hands, with my country, with my time. The “I” begins its thinking not from abstract ideas, isolated symbols, but from experience that permeates the entire life of the individual. Knowledge no longer appears as something “objective”, but as something in which I am deeply involved, where the object is felt and explained to the extent that I am included in it. This form of knowledge directly organizes my life and my way of life.” In the process of involvement, personalists believe, new relationships are established between

I wait for the knower and the known. This is no longer a relationship of impersonality and indifference, but a relationship of interest.

Personalism associates the overcoming of the traditional concept of cognition, based on objective-subjective relations and the implementation of the theory from the position of subjective-subjective relations, with the inclusion in the theory of cognition as the main cognitive means of emotional-sensual and emotional-volitional factors of love and faith. “Modern psychology,” wrote another prominent personalist, J. Lacroix, “has discovered in love the most perfect instrument of cognition. Love affirms the value of the one to whom this feeling is directed. She values the manifestation of the individual and does not seek to turn it into an object of possession.”

Love, from the point of view of personalists, is most adequately revealed in faith. Therefore, faith plays a vital role in the cognitive process. “Involved cognition,” emphasizes J. Lacroix, “has an old and beautiful name - faith.” Personalists strive to prove that faith is a necessary component in every cognitive act. It precedes knowledge, is the driving cause and ultimate goal of knowledge. Thus, in personalism, the epistemological subject is replaced by a psychological one.

When developing a theory of beliefs, personalists emphasize the personal, emotional and psychological aspects of cognition, the presence in the cognitive act itself of a moment of volitional choice, satisfaction, etc. Faith in this concept appears as a kind of psychological attitude, as a form of decision-making without sufficient experimental and logical justification. According to the characterization of M. Nedonsel, “faith expresses the affirmative strength of the spirit. It is the starting point of all knowledge, helps to bridge the gap between knowledge and ignorance, and serves as a means of their integration.” To prove these positions, personalists use the fact that in people’s lives, including in cognitive activity, such moments as faith, confidence, and conviction are of no small importance.

Indeed, it should be recognized that truth never appears in an absolutely complete and complete form. Some part of our knowledge has been confirmed by social practice and has become an objective truth, while another part has not yet been verified and is in doubt. And the fact that in the process of cognition a person is certainly faced with a choice between a more convincing and a less convincing explanation of the processes of reality is the objective basis for the need for faith as a certain stage in the process of cognition. Faith is necessary for a person to mobilize his spiritual and physical strength in the absence of information or sufficient evidence. It plays a compensatory function: as a positive emotion, faith allows a person to move further in the realm of the unknown.

But personalism unjustifiably expands the scope of faith. It, in fact, blurs the boundaries between rationally based knowledge and a person’s subjective choice. This tendency is clearly evident when personalists make a complete identification of faith and belief. “All confidence,” states J. Lacroix, “is faith, since it contains an act of choice.”

5 .2 The role of faith in the cognitive process. Ratiotransfer of knowledge, faith and belief

The problem of the role of faith and belief in cognition can be considered, first of all, from the position of the place of subjective and personal factors in the cognitive process. The enormous importance of these factors in the cognitive process, apparently, is not rejected by any epistemological theory. Epistemology recognizes the particularly important role of the subjective factor in achieving new knowledge. For the further development of scientific knowledge and practical decision-making, the researcher needs a certain confidence in the reliability of his knowledge. The role of the subjective factor in cognition especially increases in the case of making fundamentally new decisions. The researcher is faced with the acute question of choosing one or another ideological and methodological premises. Therefore, to mobilize spiritual and physical strength and gain psychological stability, a researcher at various stages of the creative process can use both faith and conviction.

Conviction and faith from a psychological point of view manifest themselves in the same way. They represent a person’s subjective and personal attitude to objectively heterogeneous knowledge. Of all the information that a person has, the subject of faith or belief becomes that which has knowledge for his daily life. The range of such information is determined by the characteristics of a person’s activity itself, his practical and spiritual interests. Faith and belief presuppose a certain emotional-volitional attitude towards the cognizable object: in each of these forms there is a moment of volitional choice, overcoming doubt, and achieving a state of psychological stability. This is manifested in a person’s willingness to defend his beliefs and make practical decisions.

But along with the general psychological characteristics, belief and belief differ both in the subject of application and in the reasons for making a decision. Belief- this is an expression of the subject’s inner confidence in the truth of the idea. The subject of belief is logically based and practically confirmed knowledge of reality. Knowledge and belief are one-order phenomena. Knowledge in theoretical form expresses the object of reality. Conviction transfers this object into the practical sphere. It serves as a necessary means of realizing knowledge, creates determination, and emotional excitement, which is necessary for the practical implementation of the idea. In the case of conviction, objectively true knowledge turns into a person’s inner confidence, which pushes and psychologically prepares him for practical action. Thus, belief can be interpreted as an objective truth, fertilized by the will, feelings and aspirations of a person.

The object of faith can only be those ideas that have not yet received sufficient logical justification and have not been confirmed by practice, i.e. objective truths do not matter. In a situation where unambiguously substantiated and practice-tested knowledge is not enough when forming a particular hypothesis, when making practical decisions, the researcher must be guided by faith in the correctness of the chosen path, the correctness of the chosen starting premises. Thus, faith, unlike belief, has hypothetical provisions as its subject. These provisions are formed on the basis of human cognition and practical activity. But the content of faith cannot be directly deduced from these premises. There is a gap between the logical and empirical prerequisites of faith and the content of faith itself; overcoming this gap is carried out on the basis of volitional choice, intuition and other non-rational forms of knowledge. The problem is how to explain the basis of this choice, to give it a natural or supernatural interpretation. From the point of view of personalism, the basis of faith is not epistemological, but ethical and religious in nature. Each private belief is possible only due to a person’s involvement in the fundamental faith - faith in God.

Rationalism, without denying the presence of non-rational moments and intuitions of faith in the cognitive process, considers it necessary to give them a natural explanation based on the interaction of the social and individual sides of the cognizing subject. A real cognizing subject is an individual who has mastered the achievements of humanity, culture, and turned them into his own strengths and abilities. Intuition is the action of the subject’s creative imagination developed on the basis of mastering material and spiritual culture, or, as the Rostov philosopher V. Dubrovin puts it, “the action of someone else’s, public “I” in me.” Consequently, the real basis of intuitive insights is the internalized social culture, that is, mastered by the individual. But this culture begins to “speak” to the individual at some special moments, “moments of insight.” What specific prerequisites for the emergence of these moments are revealed in the doctrine of the role of imagination in cognition.

Thus, the main directions of modern philosophy recognize the fundamental possibility of knowing reality. However, they disagree significantly when resolving questions about the nature of the cognitive process and the most effective cognitive means. Each school and movement has its own serious arguments and must be taken into account in its theoretical and practical activities.

6 Scientific knowledge

6 .1 Basice features of scientific knowledge

The main task of scientific knowledge is the discovery of objective laws of reality - natural, social (public), laws of knowledge itself, thinking, etc. Hence the orientation of research mainly on the general, essential properties of an object, its necessary characteristics and their expression in a system of abstractions. If this is not the case, then there is no science, because the very concept of scientificity presupposes the discovery of laws, a deepening into the essence of the phenomena being studied.

The immediate goal and highest value of scientific knowledge is objective truth, comprehended primarily by rational means and methods, but, of course, not without the participation of living contemplation. Hence the characteristic feature of scientific knowledge is objectivity. It must be borne in mind that the activity of the subject is the most important condition and prerequisite for scientific knowledge. The latter is impossible without a constructive-critical attitude to reality, excluding inertia, dogmatism, and apologetics.

Science, to a greater extent than other forms of knowledge, is oriented towards being embodied in practice, being a “guide to action” for changing the surrounding reality and managing real processes. The vital meaning of scientific research can be expressed by the formula: “To know in order to foresee, to foresee in order to practically act” - not only in the present, but also in the future.

Scientific knowledge in epistemological terms is a complex contradictory process of reproduction of knowledge that forms an integral developmental system of concepts, theories, hypotheses, laws and other ideal forms, enshrined in language - natural or - more characteristically - artificial (mathematical symbols, chemical formulas, etc. .). Scientific knowledge not only records its elements, but continuously reproduces them on its own basis, forms them in accordance with its norms and principles.

In the process of scientific knowledge, such specific material means as instruments, instruments, and other so-called “scientific equipment” are used, often very complex and expensive (synchronizers, radio telescopes, rocket and space technology, etc.). In addition, science, to a greater extent than other forms of knowledge, is characterized by the use of such ideal spiritual means and methods as modern logic, mathematical methods, dialectics and other general scientific techniques and methods to study its objects and itself.

Scientific knowledge is characterized by strict evidence, validity of the results obtained, and reliability of the conclusions. At the same time, there are many hypotheses, guesses, assumptions, probabilistic judgments, etc. That is why the most important thing here is the logical and methodological training of researchers, their philosophical culture, the constant improvement of their thinking, and the ability to correctly apply its laws and principles.

In modern methodology, various levels of scientific criteria are distinguished, including, in addition to those mentioned, such as the internal consistency of knowledge, its formal consistency, openness to criticism, freedom from bias, rigor, etc. In other forms of cognition, the considered criteria may take place (to varying degrees), but there they are not decisive.

6 .2 Specificscience of cognition of social phenomena

For a long time, the analysis of science and scientific knowledge was carried out according to the model of natural and mathematical knowledge. The characteristics of the latter were considered characteristic of science as a whole, which is especially clearly expressed in positivism. In recent years, interest in social (humanitarian) knowledge, which is considered as one of the unique types of scientific knowledge, has sharply increased. The specificity of social cognition is manifested in the following main points:

1) his subject is the “human world”, and not just a thing as such. Humanities deals with relationships between people.

2) Social cognition is inextricably linked with objective and “subjective” values.

3) A characteristic feature of social cognition is its predominant orientation towards the “qualitative coloring of events.” Here phenomena are studied mainly from the point of view of quality rather than quantity.

4) In social cognition the role of thinking, principles and methods is exceptional and great.

5) In social cognition, an important role is played by a deep knowledge of philosophy and the skillful application of its methods.

6 .3 Structure and levels scientificallyth knowledge

Scientific knowledge is an integral developing system with a rather complex structure. The latter expresses the unity of stable relationships between the elements of a given system. The structure of scientific knowledge can be presented in its various sections and, accordingly, in the totality of its specific elements. These can be: object (subject of knowledge); subject of knowledge; means and methods of cognition are its tools (material and spiritual).

Elements of the structure of scientific knowledge: 1) factual material drawn from empirical experience; 2) the results of its initial conceptual communication in concepts and other abstractions; 3) fact-based problems and scientific assumptions (hypotheses); 4) laws, principles and theories (including alternative ones) that “grow” from them; 5) philosophical attitudes; 6) socio-cultural grounds; 7) methods and norms of scientific knowledge; 8) style of thinking and some other elements.

6.4 Ulevel of scientific knowledge

At the empirical level, living contemplation (sensory cognition) predominates; the rational element and its forms (judgments, concepts, etc.) are present here, but have a subordinate significance. Therefore, the object under study is reflected primarily from its external connections and manifestations, accessible to living contemplation and expressing internal relationships. Characteristic features of empirical knowledge are the collection of facts, their primary generalization, description of observed and experimental data, their systematization and other activities.

The theoretical level of scientific knowledge is characterized by the predominance of the rational element - concepts, theories, laws and other forms. Living contemplation is not eliminated here, but becomes a subordinate (but very important) aspect of the cognitive process. Theoretical knowledge reflects phenomena and processes from their universal internal connections and patterns, comprehended through rational processing of empirical knowledge data.

The most important task of theoretical knowledge is to achieve objective truth in all its specificity and completeness of content. In this case, such cognitive techniques and means as abstraction are widely used - abstraction from a number of properties and relationships of objects, idealization - the process of creating purely mental objects (“point”, “ideal gas”, etc.), synthesis - the combination of those obtained as a result of analysis elements into a system, deduction - the movement of knowledge from the general to the particular, the ascent from the abstract to the concrete, etc.

Main structural components: problem, hypothesis and theory.

A problem is a form of knowledge, the content of which is something that has not yet been known by man, but that needs to be known.

A hypothesis is a form of knowledge containing an assumption formulated on the basis of a number of facts, the true meaning of which is uncertain and requires proof.

Theory is the most developed form of scientific knowledge, providing a holistic reflection of the natural and essential connections of a certain area of reality. The main elements of the theory: 1) initial foundations - fundamental concepts, principles, laws, axioms, etc.; 2) an idealized object - an abstract model of the essential properties and connections of the objects being studied; 3) the logic of theory, aimed at clarifying the structure and changes in knowledge; 4) a set of laws and statements put forward from the principles of this theory in accordance with certain principles. The key element of the theory is the law, therefore it can be considered as a system of laws that express the essence of the object being studied in all its integrity and specificity.

Law is a connection (relationship) between phenomena, which is: objective, essential, concrete-universal, necessary, internal, repeating, stable. Any law is a concrete historical phenomenon. The discovery of laws is the main task of scientific knowledge.

Main functions of scientific theory:

1. synthetic function - combining individual reliable knowledge into a single, holistic system.

2. explanatory function - identifying causal and other dependencies, the variety of connections of a given phenomenon, significant characteristics of its origin and development, etc.

3. methodological function - on the basis of theory, various methods, methods and techniques of research activity are formulated.

Section 3: GNOSEOLOGY.

Cognition as a process. Structure of cognition.

Historical ideas about knowledge in philosophy.
The essence of knowledge.
Structure of cognition: object and subject of cognition. The role of practice in the process of cognition. Sensory knowledge and its form. Rational knowledge and its form. The role of creative intuition in the cognitive process.

The second side of the OVF is the content of epistemology. This problem originates in ancient philosophy. The most complete epistemological concept was presented by Plato and Aristotle.

Plato in “The Myth of the Cave” (work “The State”) explained in figurative form that a person can only know the truth with a wise soul. Truth is a world of ideas that exists objectively, regardless of man. For all other people, cognition is remembering, i.e. Plato's doctrine of knowledge is objectively idealistic in nature.

Aristotle has a theory of knowledge - in his works “Categories”, Logic, Treatise on the Soul. Like Plato, Aristotle associated knowledge with the presence of a soul, but in Aristotle the mind was responsible for knowledge ( nus ). Aristotle correctly explained that categories, or general concepts, are the result of knowledge. Aristotle’s special merit is his substantiation of formal logic - the science of the laws of thinking, and he also gave a definition of truth, which has not yet been refuted and accepted: “Truth is the correspondence of our knowledge about a subject to the subject itself.”

In medieval philosophy, the epistemological problem was reflected in the debate between realists and nominalists about the nature of universals - general concepts. Realism: general concepts are real, objective, and individual things are derived from them. Nominalism: universals are the name of a thing, nomen , but in reality only single things exist. Nominalism was closer to explaining that general concepts are the result of human cognition of objects.

In the Middle Ages, God was the truth, his knowledge is associated with rational activity, with the activity of the mind, but knowledgemust have been backed by faith: “I believe so that I can understand.”

In New European philosophy, as a result of the development of science, the problems of epistemology were the most relevant in philosophy. Main questions: about the possibilities and limits of knowledge, the search for a methodology of knowledge, an explanation of what truth is. In the wake of solving these issues, a trace of epistemological direction was formed:

1. Empiricism (Fr. Bacon) - reliable knowledge can only be obtained on the basis of experience and experiment.

2. Sensualism (J. Locke) - absolutizes sensory knowledge

3. Rationalism (R. Descartes, B. Spinoza) - absolutizes the role of reason

4. Agnosticism is a movement that partially or completely denies the possibility of knowing the objective world.

5. Skepticism - raises the possibility of doubting the truth of knowledge and the boundaries of knowledge.

Agnosticism drew attention to the complexity and inconsistency of knowledge: knowledge is subjective. Our knowledge about the world is ideal, it exists in our consciousness, hence the question of the objectivity of knowledge arises. Agnostics do not take into account that knowledge is the fact of a person’s reflection of the objective world, that in content our consciousness and knowledge about the world is objective in nature, i.e. correctly explain: cognition is associated with the activity of consciousness, subjective in form and objective in content.

Cognition is the process of receiving, processing and transmitting knowledge.

Knowledge is the result of cognition; it is information about the world that a person receives as a result of his transformative activities.

Throughout life, a person receives a huge amount of information, but not all of it is knowledge.

Knowledge is information that is of a substantive and practical nature. They are formed and accumulated based on practice. They are used in practice. Inconsistency of knowledge:

1. On the one hand, knowledge is ideal, on the other hand, it is objectified in the course of practical activity.

2. On the one hand, knowledge is individualized, but on the other hand, knowledge is the result of the collective experience of all humanity.

The essence of knowledge is determined by the specific historical experience of all people. The disadvantage of past epistemological systems was that philosophers did not define cognition as a dialectical process, absolutized one aspect of cognition, were unable to explain the social nature of cognition, etc.

To understand cognition, the following questions need to be explained:

Who will know?
What is known?
Why does he know?
How does he know?
What knowledge is true?

1. Subject of knowledge(in epistemological terms) is not a separate individual, but all of humanity: past, present, future. Even brilliant scientists use the knowledge that was accumulated before him.

2. Object of knowledge- this is only that fragment of reality that is included in the objective and practical activities of people.

The subject and object of knowledge are related to each other in a practical way. The essence of a person is expressed in his creative transformative activity. On the basis of this activity, a person understands the world. As the boundaries of activity expand, the object of knowledge also expands.

3. The purpose of knowledge - a person experiences the world not for the sake of curiosity, but as a result of the need for his existence in it.The purpose of knowledge is the practical activity of people.

That. practice in cognition performs the following functions:

1. The basis of knowledge

2. Motive and stimulus for cognition

3. The purpose of knowledge

4. Practice is the criterion of truth

Human practice is diverse. It can be not only creative, but also destructive and antisocial. As diverse as human practice is, so diverse are the forms of knowledge:

1. Ordinary

2. Religious

3. Esoteric

4. Moral and legal

5. Professional

6. Scientific

7. Aesthetic, etc.

4. The process of cognition includes the dialectic of sensory and rational cognition.Sensory cognition- the beginning of any cognitive process. It is related to the functioning of human senses. Moreover, the physiological feeling in practical activity can develop, or it can atrophy, i.e. it is associated with social experience: tasters can distinguish many shades of smells and tastes.

A person’s social feelings also play an important role: likes, dislikes

Sensory cognition includes three forms:

1. Feeling - the simplest form of cognition, as a result of which ideas about individual, individual properties and characteristics of objects are formed: color, taste, smell, configuration.

2. Perception - the simplest form on the basis of which ideas about an object are formed as a collection of all properties and characteristics.

3. Presentation - a cognitive image of an object is formed through sensation and perception. It is formed and stored in our consciousness thanks to memory. An object was once felt and perceived by us, but at the moment it is absent, not perceived, but its image is stored in consciousness. This is a very important form of cognition, which allows you to study a subject without its direct presence.

Based on the cognitive image, it unfoldsrational cognition. Shapes:

1. Concept - a form of thinking, as a result of which a person fixes the most essential, basic properties and signs of a cognizable object.

2. Judgment - aimed at assessing and practical usefulness of the properties and characteristics of the subject being studied. Judgment reveals a person’s value attitude towards the world.

3. Inference - when, on the basis of several judgments, a new judgment is made about the subject.

In addition to sensory and rational cognition, creative intuition takes place in the cognitive process. It is related to human experience. Creative intuition does not manifest itself in all people and most often as an insight.

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Humanity has always strived to acquire new knowledge. The process of mastering the secrets of the surrounding world is an expression of the highest aspirations of the creative activity of the mind, which constitutes the great pride of humanity. Over the millennia of its development, humanity has passed a long and thorny path of knowledge from the primitive and limited to an ever deeper and more comprehensive penetration into the essence of being. On this path, an innumerable number of facts, properties and laws of nature, social life and man himself were discovered, and constant changes in “pictures” and “images” of the world took place. Developing knowledge went hand in hand with the development of production, with the flourishing of the arts and artistic creativity. The human mind comprehends the laws of the world not for the sake of simple curiosity (although curiosity is one of the driving forces of human life), but for the sake of practical transformation of both nature and man with the goal of the most harmonious life of man in the world. The knowledge of mankind forms a complex system, which acts in the form of social memory, its wealth and diversity are transmitted from generation to generation, from people to people through the mechanism of social heredity and culture. Knowledge does not arise on its own, it is the result of a special process of cognitive activity of people, knowledge is the process of acquiring and developing knowledge, its constant deepening, expansion and improvement. The process of knowledge, no matter how it takes place, is always an interaction between subject and object , the result of which is knowledge about the world around us.

The subject of knowledge is the one who wants to gain knowledge about the world around him. The object of cognition is what the cognitive activity of the subject is directed towards.

The following elements can be distinguished in the structure of cognition.

1. Conscious activity. It is divided into the following areas:
- - cognitive sphere - mental activity, operating with certain concepts;
- - emotional sphere - internal feelings, sensations, experiences of a person;
- - motivational-volitional sphere - motives, interests, needs that form goals and direct a person to achieve them.
2. Unconscious activity. Here we highlight:
- - intuition;
- - dreams;
- - instincts.

Man began to think about what knowledge is, what ways of acquiring knowledge, already in ancient times, when he realized himself as something opposed to nature, as an agent in nature. Over time, the conscious formulation of this question and the attempt to solve it acquired a relatively harmonious form, and then knowledge about knowledge itself emerged. All philosophers, as a rule, in one way or another, analyzed the problems of the theory of knowledge. There were two approaches to the question of how a person knows the world: some philosophers believed that we know the world with our senses, others with our minds. The group of the first philosophers is called sensualists (Epicurus, F. Bacon, L. Feuerbach), the group of the second - rationalists (Plato, R. Descartes, B. Spinoza). There is a third concept of knowledge - agnosticism - denial of the possibility of knowing the world (D. Hume). Modern science considers sensory and rational knowledge as two successive stages in the formation of knowledge. Historically and logically, the first stage of the cognitive process is sensory knowledge - knowledge with the help of the senses. Sensory cognition as a whole is characterized by a reflection of the world in a visual form, the presence of a direct connection between a person and reality, a reflection of mainly external aspects and connections, the beginning of comprehension of internal dependencies based on the initial generalization of sensory data. The basic feelings of a person were described by the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle for more than two thousand years back. These are taste, touch, vision, hearing and smell. Man's sensory knowledge of the world is carried out in three main forms.

1. Sensation - a sensory image of an object. The sensation appears as a result of the influence of any object on the human senses. A person perceives external signs of an object that are accessible to the senses: smell, taste, shape, color. It is through sensations that an individual receives primary information about the objective world.
2. Perception is a holistic image of an object, in the totality of all sensations. Any object has many different properties and a person perceives them not separately, but as a whole. This is possible thanks to the simultaneous mutually coordinated work of various senses. (For example, an apple is red, round, hard, sweet). Perception allows you to isolate an object from the surrounding background, displaying its shape, size, and position in space.
3. Representation is a generalized image of an object, stored through memory. Holistic sensory images of perception as a result of intense interaction between a person and the environment accumulate in his consciousness. The accumulation and preservation of these images is carried out through memory. A person can imagine what he once saw and heard, describe what he perceived before. At the same time, some details, individual features of the object may be lost, which is why we call this image generalized.

Sensations, perceptions and ideas in the process of cognition act interconnectedly and are influenced by rational forms of cognition and logical thinking. Rational knowledge is most fully reflected in thinking. Therefore, it is necessary to clearly understand the content of this most important concept. Thinking is an active process of reflecting the surrounding world that occurs during practice. Human thinking is not a purely natural property, but a function of a social subject developed in the process of objective activity and communication. So, rational knowledge is penetration into the essence of things, operating with ideal images using logical thinking. Basic forms of rational knowledge.

4. Concept - reflects phenomena or objects in their general and essential characteristics. Concepts are expressed in linguistic form - in the form of individual words, terms or in the form of phrases denoting classes of objects. For example: apple tree, tree.
5. Judgment is a connection between concepts when something is affirmed or denied. This mental reflection is usually expressed by a declarative sentence. A proposition can be either true or false. For example, an apple tree is a tree.
6. Inference is a way of thinking in which a person, connecting his judgments, comes to certain conclusions. For example: All people are mortal. Ivanov is a man. Consequently, Ivanov is mortal. Sensual and rational knowledge are two stages of knowledge and do not contradict each other. These two forms of cognition are in constant interaction and form an inextricable unity of the cognitive process. Rational forms of cognition are impossible without forms of sensory cognition, because this is where they get their source material. At the same time, sensory knowledge is influenced by rational knowledge. Sensations, perceptions and ideas of a person carry within themselves the characteristics of all spiritual and intellectual activity of consciousness.

The concept of scientific knowledge, its structure and functions. The essence of the cognition process, its structure and forms

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