№

Subject

weeks of the semester

Types of educational work and independent work, per hour.

Total hours on topic

Of which in interactive form, per hour

Total points

Lectures

Practical lessons

Independent work

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Masterpieces of world culture

Module 1

Culture is a world of meanings

0-11

Culture of the ancient world (Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome)

0-11

Culture of the Middle Ages

0-12

Renaissance culture

0-12

Total

1-8

8

8

52

68

4

0-46

Module 2

Art culture 17th century

9-10

0-10

Features of European culture 18th century

11-12

0-11

19th century culture

13-14

ATHENS ACROPOLIS

PHIDIAS

THE HISTORY OF ONE MASTERPIECE

Athens Acropolis

Name Acropolis in Athens

Date of creation: 5th century. BC.

Art form architecture

Architectural styleantique architecture

Purpose acted as a religious sanctuary for all of Attica

Architectural appearanceThe Acropolis towers over all of Athens, its silhouette shaping the skyline of the city. In ancient times, the Parthenon rising above the hills could be seen from any part of Attica and even by ships sailing to the shore. The thoughtful composition of the entire ensemble, perfectly found proportions, a flexible combination of various orders, and the finest modeling of architectural details make the buildings of the Acropolis the highest achievement of ancient Greek architecture and one of the most outstanding monuments of world art.

Design solutionIn the construction of the Acropolis, Phidias used an order system, which included three orders: Ionic, Doric and Corinthian. Moreover, during the construction of the Erechtheion he did not use an order system, but used karyotides. All the temples on the Acropolis depict figures of gods mixed with people.

Materials All structural elements of the Acropolis, including the roof tiles and stylobate steps, were hewn from local Pentelic marble, almost white immediately after quarrying, but over time acquiring a warm yellowish tint. No mortar or cement was used and the masonry was done dry. The blocks were carefully adjusted to each other, the horizontal connection between them was carried out using I-beam iron fasteners placed in special grooves and filled with lead, the vertical connection was made using iron pins.

Dimensions approx. 300 m long and 170 m wide

Phidias (c.490 BC Athens)

Major works

• Athena Promachos on the Acropolis, c.460 BC. e.
• Zeus Olympian

The idea of ​​the workThe Acropolis of Athens, which is a 156-meter rocky hill with a flat top. In 447, the supervision of the work was entrusted to the famous sculpture Phidias, who, apparently, was the author of the artistic program that formed the basis of the entire complex, its architectural and sculptural appearance.

437-432 Propylaea and Temple of Nike Apteros

421-406 Erechtheion

448-432 Parthenon

The fate of the work

Destruction The temples on the Acropolis were rebuilt many times due to frequent wars.

Reconstruction After the declaration of Greek independence, during restoration work (mainly at the end of the 19th century), the ancient appearance of the Acropolis was restored as much as possible.

Today's appearanceThe sculptures that remained in the open air have now been replaced by copies. Many reliefs and sculptures are in museums around the world.

Interesting FactsIn the 15th century, the Parthenon was turned into a mosque, to which minarets were added, and the Erechtheion became the harem of the Turkish pasha.

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COLISEUM

THE HISTORY OF ONE MASTERPIECE

Coliseum

(Flavian Amphitheater)

Brief information about the work

Name Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheatre).

Date of creation 75 - 80 AD

Place of construction: Italy, Rome

Art form architecture

Architectural styleantique architecture

Purpose various performances were given in the amphitheaters: naval battles, battles

people with exotic animals, gladiator fights.

Architectural appearanceThe Roman Colosseum was a huge bowl with

stepped rows of seats, closed on the outside by an elliptical ring

wall.

Design solutionin plan the Colosseum is an ellipse. The arena is separated by a high

wall from the spectators' seats. Around the arena, gradually rising, there were

seats for spectators, separated by wide aisles. Four walked inside

tiers of seats, which on the outside corresponded to three tiers of arcades: Doric

Ionic and Corinthian. The fourth tier was blank, with Corinthian pilasters.

Materials The Colosseum is built of tuff, the outer walls are made of harder

Traventine, brick and concrete were used for the vaults and walls.

Dimensions length – 188 m, height – 48.5 m, circumference – 520 m.

History of the creation of the work

The idea of ​​the workin the Colosseum, popular spectacles in Rome were staged - gladiator fights, fights with animals and even naval battles - naumachia (then the arena was filled with water). In addition, equestrian competitions, sports competitions and something similar to modern concerts took place there. Organizing such spectacles was one of the unspoken duties of the ruling class and was a sure way to win the love of the people. As a matter of national importance, also associated with large expenses, the holding of games was regulated by many laws.

Duration and stages of constructionThe Colosseum was used for its intended purpose for four and a half centuries, and during this time it was repeatedly completed, partially rebuilt and repaired without changing the overall design. In 217, the upper tiers burned down in a fire caused by a lightning strike, but they were rebuilt. In 248, the millennium of Rome was solemnly celebrated in the Amphitheater. The last gladiator fight took place in 404, and in 405 such spectacles were banned as contrary to the spirit of Christianity, which by that time had become the dominant religion. According to some evidence, in the middle of the 5th century the Colosseum still retained its original appearance, but 50 years later it was severely destroyed, possibly as a result of an earthquake. Animal persecution was carried out in the Colosseum for more than a century - the last one was carried out in 523, after the fall of the Roman state. For some time, the Amphitheater was occasionally used as an arena, but by the 8th–9th centuries it was completely abandoned.

The fate of the work

Destruction Gradually, the Amphitheater melted - its stones were dismantled, the lower tier of arches gradually went underground, trees grew on the ruins and even wild animals lived. The Arena began to be perceived as a historical and architectural monument only in the 18th century. The first pope to be touched by the fate of the Colosseum was Benedict XVI. He revered it as the place where many Christian martyrs met their death (although not all modern scholars agree with this), and in memory of their suffering he installed a huge cross in the middle of the arena, and several altars nearby. These symbols existed until 1874.

Reconstruction And since that time, the Colosseum has been constantly restored: at different periods, the remaining walls that threatened to collapse were strengthened, the internal staircases were repaired, some lost parts were completed, excavations were carried out and underground rooms were discovered. In 1997, a grand survey of the Colosseum was carried out using modern laser and infrared equipment. These works made it possible to create an accurate map of the Amphitheater and identify the places of greatest deformation of the structure.

Today's appearanceThe Colosseum is still so impressive and uniquely original that anyone entering there can, if he wants, see for a moment this gigantic building as it was, when thousands of heated faces were turned to the arena, and there, among the whirlwinds of dust, streams of blood flowed and There was such a fierce struggle that human language is powerless to describe. But the very next moment the desolation and gloomy grandeur of these ruins give rise to a quiet sadness in the visitor; and, perhaps, he will never again be so excited and shocked by any other spectacle that is not directly related to his personal feelings and experiences... This is the most impressive, the most solemn, majestic and gloomy spectacle that can be imagined.

Interesting FactsTo build the Colosseum, it was necessary to drain the lake. He was

designed for 50,000 spectators. It was possible to release into the arena at the same time

3,000 gladiators. Placement of people was carried out according to social criteria:

lower tier seats for the emperor, his entourage, and senators; second, third -

for horsemen and Roman citizens; the fourth - for freedmen. System

galleries and many entrances helped to quickly fill and empty the building.

To protect spectators from the sun over the entire amphitheater on high masts,

Mounted on the wall of the fourth tier, an awning (velarium) was stretched. In the deep

In the basements of the Colosseum there were rooms for gladiators and cages for animals.

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PARTHENON

ICTIN AND KALLICRATE

THE HISTORY OF ONE MASTERPIECE

Parthenon

Brief information about the work

Name Parthenon

Date of creation 447-438. BC

Place of construction Greece, Athens

Art form architecture

Architectural styleAntique architecture

Purpose the main temple of the Acropolis, dedicated to the goddess Athena

Architectural appearance.The Parthenon in its current form is a Doric order peripter standing on three marble steps (total height approx. 1.5 m), with 8 columns at the ends and 17 on the sides (if you count the corner columns twice). The height of the peristyle columns, composed of 10–12 drums, is 10.4 m, their diameter at the base is 1.9 m, the corner columns are slightly thicker (1.95 m). The columns have 20 flutes (vertical grooves) and taper towards the top. The interior of the temple, or cella (external size 21.7-59 m), is raised above the stylobate by two more steps (total height 0.7 m) and has six-column prostyle porticoes at the ends, the columns of which are slightly lower than in the outer colonnade. The cella is divided into two rooms. The eastern one, longer and called hecatompedon (internal size 29.9-19.2 m), was divided into three naves by two rows of 9 Doric columns, which were closed at the western end by a transverse row of three additional columns. It is assumed that there was a second tier of Doric columns, which was located above the first and provided the required height of the ceilings. In the space enclosed by the inner colonnade, there was a colossal (12 m in height) chrysoelephantine (made of gold and ivory) cult statue of Athena by Phidias. The ceilings of the western room of the cella (internal size 13.9-19.2 m) rested on four high columns, presumably Ionic.

Constructive solution.All the lines of the temple seem perfectly straight, because the architects took into account the peculiarities of human vision: so that straight lines do not appear concave, they were made convex. All the lines of the Parthenon, all its planes are curved, slightly rounded, the columns tilt inward, the distances between them are different, although they seem the same, the corner columns are more massive and closer to their neighbors, otherwise in the bright sun they would seem thin.

Materials. All elements of the Parthenon's structure, including the roof tiles and stylobate steps, were hewn from local Pentelic marble, almost white immediately after quarrying, but over time acquiring a warm yellowish tint. No mortar or cement was used and the masonry was done dry. The blocks were carefully adjusted to each other, the horizontal connection between them was carried out using I-beam iron fasteners placed in special grooves and filled with lead, the vertical connection was made using iron pins.

Dimensions. The dimensions of the temple in plan (along the stylobate) are 30.9-69.5 m.

Iktin (second half of the 5th century BC)

Years of creative activity.Ancient Greek architect 2nd floor. 5th century BC e. The largest architect of the classical period.

Major works

• Odeon of Pericles in Athens
• Temple of Apollo at Bassae, ca. 430 BC

Callicrates (mid 5th century BC)

Years of creative activity.Ancient Greek architectser. 5th century BC e. Representative of the classical period

Major works

• Parthenon, Athens, 5th century. BC.
• Temple of Nike Apteros, Athens, ca. 420 BC

Phidias (beg. 5th century BC e. - OK. 432-431 BC e.)

Years of creative activity.Ancient Greek sculptor of the high classical period.

Major works

• Athena Promachos on the Acropolis, c.460 BC e.
• Zeus Olympian
• Athena Parthenos, Athens, consecrated in 438 BC. e.
• Sculptural decoration of the Parthenon, Athens

History of the creation of the work

The idea of ​​the work.The Parthenon is the center of the Athens Acropolis, one of the most majestic temples of Ancient Greece, dedicated to Athena, it has a number of unique features. (The Parthenon is built in the form of a peripterus).

Duration of construction.The construction of the Parthenon lasted 16 years and was completed in 432 BC. e.

The fate of the work

Destruction. During the Byzantine era, at the beginning of the 7th century, the Parthenon became the Christian Church of Hagia Sophia. The internal structure of the temple has undergone a radical alteration. During the construction of the apse, all the central figures of the eastern pediment were destroyed. In 1456, Athens was captured by the Turks. The Acropolis became a Turkish fortress. The Parthenon was converted into a mosque. In 1685, war began between Turkey and the Venetian Republic. The Turks set up a gunpowder warehouse in the Parthenon. During its explosion, the entire central part of the temple, except for the western wall, and most of the colonnade were destroyed. The Venetians wanted to take away the sculptures as a trophy, but they broke because they did not hold up well after the explosion.

Reconstruction Restoration of the temple began in the 19th century. The northern colonnade and pediment sculptures (casts made of cement with the addition of cement chips) were restored. In the 1950s, the floor of the temple was restored.

Today's appearance.Nowadays, only the western wall remains of the central volume. Of the original sculptures, only two figures of the western pediment and a frieze on the western wall remained. Today's Parthenon, or rather its majestic ruins, is white.

Interesting Facts.Today the Parthenon is rightfully considered one of the greatest examples of ancient architecture, a masterpiece of world art and sculpture.

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PYRAMIDS IN GIZA

THE HISTORY OF ONE MASTERPIECE

Brief information about the work

Name of the pyramid at Giza

Date of creation V century. BC .

Place of construction Egypt, Giza

Art form architecture

Architectural style

Purpose tombs of the pharaohs

Architectural appearanceThe ensemble includes the Sphinx and three large pyramids: Cheops, Khafre and Mekerin. The latter has three more small satellite pyramids. Each pyramid includes a mortuary temple upstream and downstream of the Nile, as well as a corridor connecting them. The Sphinx is a statue of a lion with a human head.

Design solutionthe three monuments are located diagonally, but in such a way that none obscures the sun from the others.

Materials stone

Dimensions The Cheops pyramid is the largest: it is square, each side is 250 m. Each stone is at least 10m. At first it was 146m high, today it reaches only 137m, and in place of the peak a platform 10m wide has formed. The height of Khafre's pyramid is less than that of the previous one, but its top is at the same level as it, since it stands on a higher place. The Pyramid of Mekerin barely reaches 66m. The length of the Sphinx is 73m.

(Date and place of birth)

Education

Years of creative activity

Date and place of death

Major works

• (Name, place and date of construction)

History of the creation of the work

The idea of ​​the work

Duration and stages of constructionAt first, they spent 10 years building a road along which the stones were dragged, but this was nothing compared to the construction of the pyramid itself. She required 20 years of work. The pyramid was first built in the form of a large staircase, composed of what some call battlements, and others call steps. This shape made it possible to lift the remaining stones.

The fate of the work

Destruction The ensemble of the Cheops pyramid was almost completely destroyed, while the ensemble of the Khafre pyramid, on the contrary, was largely preserved.

No reconstruction was carried out.

Today's appearancehave survived to this day.

Interesting Factson the pyramid of Cheops there are inscriptions indicating how much money was spent on purchasing horseradish, onions and garlic to feed the workers. The amount of expenses reached 6,000 talents of silver, which is 40,000 kg.

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STONEHENGE

THE HISTORY OF ONE MASTERPIECE

Stonehenge

Brief information about the work

Name Stonehenge

Date of creation 3500 - 1100 BC.

Place of construction: Great Britain, England

Art form Architecture

Architectural stylePrimitive art

Purpose Perhaps Stonehenge, serving as a temple of the Sun, was a place of ritual ceremonies and burials, and also served as a terrifying symbol of the power of the priests. Another version cannot be ruled out, according to which Stonehenge, acting as an astronomical observatory, allows one to accurately count days, mark the beginning of the season, and predict the onset of solar and lunar eclipses.

Architectural appearanceStonehenge consisted of two ringed halls in the center, with an altar in the shape of a horseshoe installed.

Materials For the construction of the complex, stones were delivered from a quarry, which was located more than 300 kilometers from the construction site.

Dimensions In general, Stonehenge is a structure of 82 five-ton megaliths, 30 stone blocks weighing 25 tons and 5 huge so-called trilithons, stones whose weight reaches 50 tons. Folded stone blocks form arches that once served as a perfect indicator of the cardinal directions.

History of the creation of the work

Duration and stages of constructionStonehenge I was a circular ditch with two halls. There are 56 small burial “Aubrey holes” located in a circle along the outer shaft. To the northeast of the entrance to the ring there was a huge, seven-meter high Heel Stone. During the construction of Stonehenge II, an earthen alley was laid between the Heel Stone and the entrance. Two rings of 80 huge blue stone blocks were erected, which were probably transported 320 km from South Wales. At the final stage of construction, the megaliths were rearranged.The blue stones were replaced by a ring colonnade of 30 trilithons, each of which consisted of two vertical stones and a horizontal slab resting on them. A horseshoe of five free-standing trilithons was installed inside the ring.

The fate of the work

Today's appearanceToday there is no clear answer to the question of what these amazing ancient architectural structures were: a temple, a necropolis, an observatory, but in any case, the history of architecture began with them.

Interesting FactsThe famous astronomer Fred Hoyle, having studied all the geometric features of Stonehenge, determined that the creators of this structure knew the exact orbital period of the Moon and the length of the solar year. According to the conclusions of other researchers, the holes located inside the circle formed by stone blocks exactly indicate the trajectory of the Pole of the World 12-30 thousand years ago.According to local legend, giant blue stones have healing powers; they appeared on this land thanks to the wizard Merlin, a sorcerer at the court of King Arthur, who brought them from Ireland. The origin of the huge Heel Stone is connected with another legend. They say that one day the devil saw a monk hiding among the stones. Before the unfortunate man could escape, the devil threw a huge boulder at him, which crushed him at the heel. For a long time, the ruins of Stonehenge were associated with the priestly cult of the ancient Celts-Druids, although experts deny this connection.

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MIKHAILOVSKY PALACE (RUSSIAN MUSEUM)

DATE OF CREATION 1819-1825

HISTORY OF CREATIONIn 1798, Paul I ordered to put aside several hundred thousand rubles every year for the construction of a palace for his youngest son Mikhail. The emperor never had a chance to see the implementation of his idea; as a result of a palace coup, he died. The decision to begin construction was made by Emperor Alexander I. The architect of the Mikhailovsky Castle under construction wasKarl Ivanovich Rossi . He began working on the project in 1817, when it was planned to build the residence of the Grand Duke first on the siteVorontsov Palace , and then - on the spotChernyshev's house . After the decision to build a palace on this wasteland,Russia began to create a project not just for the reconstruction of existing buildings, but for a new urban architectural ensemble. The groundbreaking ceremony for the building took place on July 14, and construction began on July 26. Rossi connected the Mikhailovsky Palace withNevsky Prospekt new Mikhailovskaya street, which turns intoMikhailovskaya Square directly in front of the palace. Mikhailovskaya Street offers a view of the main building of the building, which is flanked by two service buildings. One of them housed kitchens, the other housed an arena and stables. From the outsideField of Mars a garden appeared at the palace - Mikhailovsky. Construction of the building was completed by 1825.

ARCHITECTURAL LOOKThe Russian Museum is part of the ensemble of the Mikhailovsky Palace and the Engineering Castle.The Mikhailovsky Palace stands between Nevsky Prospekt and the Field of Mars. Already from Nevsky Prospect, in the perspective of the street, one could see above the arcade of the first floor a beautifully proportioned, magnificent portico with Corinthian columns, with a richly decorated pediment sculpture. There is a colonnade of twenty trunks across the entire width of the façade, resting on the side projections. On the side of the garden, in the same Corinthian order with twelve columns, there is a loggia placed between two massive ones crowned with small pediments.The wide granite staircase at the entrance to the building is decorated with two lion statues.

INTERESTING FACTSThe Russian Museum is one of the most famous not only in St. Petersburg, but throughout Russia. Here you can see works of art by Andrei Rublev, F. Shubin, K. Bryullov, F. Bruni, O. Kiprensky, A. Ivanov, I. Repin, A. Kuindzhi, I. Shishkin, V. Serov, M. Vrubel, B. Kustodiev, K. Malevich, M. Chagall, K. Petrov-Vodkin and other great Russian artists.

DATE OF CREATION 1806-1819

HISTORY OF CREATIONSince 1704, on the Admiralty Island, located on the left bank of the Neva and limited on the southern side by the Moika, the construction of the Admiralty shipyard began - according to the drawings of Peter I himself. Together with the Peter and Paul Fortress, it was the basis of the architectural composition of the city. In the 1730s, a terrible fire devastated the central part of St. Petersburg, and a specially created commission began to develop a plan for its new development. Architect Ivan Korobov, leaving the original general U-shaped layout of the Admiralty, replaced the half-timbered buildings with stone ones. At the beginning of the 19th century, Andreyan Zakharov began working on the creation of a new Admiralty building.

ARCHITECTURAL LOOKThe new Admiralty was conceived as a kind of monument to the Russian fleet, and therefore the central entrance to it was designed in the form of a triumphal arch. The building consists of two U-shaped buildings - the outer one, intended for the Admiralty Department, and the inner one, where the workshops were located. The architect repeated the arch motif in the facades of symmetrically located pavilions facing the Neva. The sculptural decoration of the Admiralty is united by one theme - the glorification of the power of Russia. In front of the main entrance on both sides there are monumental figures of nymphs supporting the celestial spheres (1812, sculptor F.F. Shchedrin). Above the arch of the tower there is a high relief “Establishment of the Fleet in Russia” (1812, sculptor I.I. Terebenev) about 22 meters long.

A tower with a spire was built according to the design of Ivan Korobov. Later, architect Andreyan Zakharov increased the height of the spire to 72m and crowned it with a weather vane in the form of a three-masted frigate.

DATE OF CREATION 1819 - 1829

HISTORY OF CREATIONThe design of the General Staff building drawn up by Rossi provided for the connection of two large buildings located in an arc with a central triumphal arch. It was decided to place the General Headquarters of the Ground Forces in the right (western) wing, and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Finance in the left (eastern) wing. Construction work proceeded quickly on October 23, 1824. Rossi reported to his superiors that the entire huge façade was already ready. As soon as the wings were erected, they began to lay out an arch between them. The Arc de Triomphe was conceived by Russia as a monument to the heroic exploits of the Russian people in the liberation Patriotic War of 1812.

ARCHITECTURAL LOOKThe arch, the main compositional and spatial core of the building, is strengthened by twin Corinthian columns on the sides and an attic with a stepped end. The building is crowned by the chariot of Victory, drawn by six horses. This entire spectacular central composition, approximating a square in proportions, is still supported on both sides by the clear vertical rhythm of the nine-column Corinthian porticoes.Rich in sculptural decor, the monumental solution of the center andthe slender rhythm of the columns of the porticoes of the side wings is especially expressive against the background of the strict neutral facade facing the square.The array of arch abutments is emphasized by the fittings - beautifully composed high reliefs of military armor and weapons. Above them, between the columns, are statues of warriors and fittings, and on the sides of the arch are high reliefs in the form of flying figures.It is extremely difficult to compose a half-kilometer-long façade of a building so simply and at the same time so beautifully. This effect, with a generally calm background, is created by an actively identified center, which is created by the arc of the building and the powerful arch of perfect proportions.

INTERESTING FACTSAs Rossi’s daughters said, the architect and his workers climbed to the very top on the day the arch opened. “If the arch falls, I’m ready to fall with it,” he said.

DATE OF CREATION 1858

HISTORY OF CREATIONInitially, a small wooden church was built on Admiralteysky Meadow, distinguished by the modest architecture characteristic of the first buildings of the Peter the Great era. With its construction, Peter I decided to immortalize his birthday - May 30, which coincided with the celebration of the memory of St. Isaac of Dalmatia. On August 6, 1717, on the banks of the Neva, approximately where the monument to Peter I now stands, with the participation of the emperor, the highest dignitaries of the state and the clergy, the second St. Isaac's Church was founded. In May 1735, a fire broke out from a lightning strike, completing the destruction that had begun.

On July 15, 1761, by decree of the Senate, the design and construction of the new St. Isaac's Church was entrusted to S.I. Chevakinsky, but the talented architect did not have to carry out his plan. Construction dates have been postponed.

Having ascended the throne in 1762, Catherine II approved the idea of ​​​​rebuilding the cathedral associated with the name of Peter I, but the design and construction was entrusted to the architect Antonio Rinaldi. The cathedral was conceived with five intricately designed domes and a high bell tower. Marble cladding was supposed to add sophistication to the color scheme of the facades. But construction was extremely slow. Rinaldi was forced to leave St. Petersburg without completing the work he started. Construction management was headed by O. Montferrand.

ARCHITECTURAL LOOKGigantic, faced with marble, crowned with a giant dome and small domes of bell towers, the building of St. Isaac's Cathedral dominates the square (height 101.5 m), it is surrounded by 112 monolithic columns, weighing from 64 to 114 tons. The temple accommodates about 14 thousand people.The temple is decorated with 350 reliefs and statues. All the sculptural decoration of the cathedral was carried out according to the models of I. Vitali, S. Pimenov, A. Lemer. A grandiose ensemble of statues, bas-reliefs, door leaves, two pediments, sculptural decor, connected by the unity of biblical and gospel narratives, is organically included in the architectonics of the building.

INTERESTING FACTSThe ceiling of the dome (diameter 21.83 m), made of iron and cast iron, as well as the use in the construction of a new galvanoplastic method for the production of bas-reliefs by engineer B.S. Jacobi testify to the development of technology and engineering.

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How is Malevich’s Black Square different from Vasya Vatnikov’s red circle with green polka dots? I dare say that nothing. True, any esthete will tell you (despite the fact that Malevich himself noted that his painting means nothing) about the deepest hidden meaning of the work. However, exactly the same can be said about the red circle with green polka dots by Vasya Vatnikov: the circle of peas symbolizes the vicious circle of existence and so on. So why does the price of two completely uninteresting paintings, all other things being equal, vary so much? The answer to this question should rather be sought in the field of science known as Ethology, rather than in art.

1. Aesthetic pleasure from the painting.

It is logical to assume that a painting, like any other product of creative self-expression, is designed to provide aesthetic pleasure from contemplating a masterpiece, for which people supposedly pay millions. However, if you look deeper, it becomes clear that aesthetic pleasure is the very last thing that affects the cost of the canvas. It is not taken into account at all. After all, if the main value of a masterpiece lies in how it looks and how it affects a person, then why do its copies cost a penny, unlike the original? Therefore, the masterpiece itself, the image itself, is not worth anything, only the exclusivity of the canvas is worth it. Or does copying lose something that actually makes a masterpiece a masterpiece? Hardly, especially taking into account today's copying technologies, as well as the high skill of artists (if we are talking about redrawing). There is only one conclusion: the price of a painting is not at all affected by what is commonly called artistic value. Artistic value is worth a penny. And here it’s clearly a matter of exclusivity.

2. Is there any aesthetic pleasure from a masterpiece at all, and how strong is it?

Apparently, even the very aesthetic pleasure from all sorts of black squares was also something people came up with for themselves. An example of this is Van Gogh, who sold only one painting during his lifetime, and even that was bought from him out of pity. Why were his paintings of no interest to anyone during his lifetime? Probably because no one experienced pleasure, delight and admiration from his “mastery”. And no one saw any sense in them, and if there was any sense in them, then no one cared about it.

But suddenly, some time after his death, his paintings suddenly begin to provide the broad masses with intense aesthetic pleasure, and acquire a certain deep meaning that is admired by millions of aesthetes. This is somehow strange! How is it that at one point in time no one likes your paintings, but suddenly, as if by magic, the whole world falls in love with your paintings? By the way, this applies to most artists; there is even a saying: recognition comes to the artist after death. For some reason, it comes to great poets, like Pushkin and Vysotsky, and writers, like Orwell and Bulgakov, during their lifetime, but to great artists only after death. Something is wrong here.

If you considered a certain girl scary 20 years ago, then she will be so for you today. He also enjoys viewing pictures. The fact that at one time the artist’s paintings do not please the eye, and then suddenly begin to please the eye, only confirms what was described in the paragraph above: the artistic value of the canvas is of no interest to anyone and does not play any role in the value of the painting, as well as in recognizing it as a masterpiece. In most cases, aesthetic pleasure is simply invented by the audience. Only a professional artist can evaluate the quality of a painting, and this is a very limited category of the population, and they are certainly not the ones who buy such paintings for that kind of money.

Did you get aesthetic pleasure from the painting? Even if they did receive it; even if some super-complicated drawing styles were used to create this muini, it cannot even cost thousands of dollars, no matter how deep the supposed meaning is put into it. The price of this painting is equal to the price of the materials spent on its creation + extra charge for the work. True, with such work, it obviously costs a penny. The painter at my entrance somehow did his job carelessly - it turned out to be a reconstruction of Rothko’s works. Only the painter gets paid much less.

From the first two points it turns out that neither the aesthetic pleasure of viewing a painting nor the artistic value play any role in determining the price. Because copies of paintings cost pennies. Therefore, the whole point is in exclusivity and limited edition - this is one and two - the matter is whose brush the work belongs to. During Van Gogh's time there was not a single worthy artist? Why is it that his paintings are worth millions, and no one needs the rest for nothing? Why in today's Russia are Nikos Safronov's paintings worth thousands of times more than equally high-quality (and often more) works by thousands of other artists?

3. Exclusivity of the canvas.

Man, as we know, is a social animal, and for all animals living together in any community, the issue of status plays an extremely important role, because the status determines how other members of the community will treat this individual. Each animal community uses various tools to demonstrate status - the size of the genitals, tail, mane, the volume of the roar and much more. Since man has gone quite far from animals in terms of the complexity of the community in which he lives, man has much more tools for demonstrating status. Status is important in absolutely every social stratum of the population and in every group, regardless of the number of individuals. Even people who verbally completely reject consumerism (for example, skinheads or punks) are completely dependent on this instinct. And status can primarily be achieved through consumption. For example, every skinhead of the 90s dreamed of reptiles with white laces - such an outfit demonstrated his high status among the primates around him. And among punks, who measure themselves by the coolness of their Iroquois, this feature of demonstrating status is generally copied from the wild.

Richer people use, for example, expensive cars, yachts and airplanes to demonstrate their status. It is not enough for a very rich person to just buy himself a cool yacht - it must be the largest in the world. Why does he need the largest private yacht in the world, most of whose functions he won’t even use? The yacht is called just stand and demonstrate his status. All!

But the most expensive things in the world are exclusive or limited edition. For a very rich person, a Mercedes is no longer enough to demonstrate status, because... Many people have Mercedes. You could observe a simplified version of this mechanism in the behavior of human females: how happy she is when she has acquired expensive, beautiful clothes, but how upset she is if suddenly her work colleague came in in exactly the same blouse. She lost her exclusivity, and with this loss she became average in status, which was a reason for grief. In order to avoid such incidents, a very rich person buys a limited edition watch for crazy money, which in essence is no different from other cool watches, except for its exclusivity. Those. he pays for exclusivity. Rolex watches, for example, also serve this purpose. If you give out free Rolexes to everyone, then they will lose their value and no one will need them, just as Montana watches were once no longer needed.

Hence the scandals with Peskov’s ultra-expensive watches. They use these pills as a means of demonstrating status. If Peskov's watches had been produced in unlimited quantities, they would have cost a thousand times less. Masterpieces of art are used in the same way. The main thing is not what is drawn - even if it’s an outright mess. The main thing is to have an exclusive that no one else has! Hence the high price for originals and low for copies. Peskov comes to visit the Patriarch, looks - and his watch is even cooler. What can the unfortunate Peskov do in his grief? Buy a painting for your private collection for $50 million. In this regard, art is the most effective method of demonstrating status: the watch may have been released in a limited edition, but someone in the world still has it. But no one has the original of such a painting. What's written on it? Fuck it, the main thing is that only I have it!

What is especially interesting is that all those complex rules that a product must comply with are created by the experts themselves together with the manufacturers of the product and cannot be objectively assessed by the consumer because the functionality of such a product is a secondary criterion - remove the value contained on them in the form of trademarks from many exclusive products - and most of them will immediately lose their high value.

All that remains is to understand by what criteria candidates for future masterpieces are selected? Why exactly the daub of Rothko, Lucio Fontano, Barnett Newmon, and not the painter from my entrance? Why Nikas Safronov, and not the artist from Arbat?

4. Exclusivity of the artist.

Let's look at the example of the same Rothko. When Rothko first started painting, there was no art market at all. These were the first post-war years, Europe was in ruins, the early enthusiasm of the first philanthropists of the beginning of the century had already been washed away by the Great Depression, and American artists were left entirely to themselves - in a country that, for their reasons, had neither its own tradition, nor its own mythology, nor culture. No galleries, no curators, no collectors, no critics. It was impossible to even convincingly formulate what needed to be written now: the old paradigms had long since passed away, giving way to the European avant-garde, but even the avant-garde had failed to justify itself. And then Rothko appears with his idiot - the founder of abstract field painting. What distinguished Rothko from thousands of other artists, and NORMAL artists? He was the first to start exhibiting this. Those. exclusive. Plus, the cost of paintings is also influenced by the tragedy of the artist’s life. And Rothko cut his wrists with a razor. Hence, years after his death, the cost of paintings. It was exclusive in its specificity. Specificity not as an artist (his works have nothing to do with fine art), but as a person.

You've probably noticed that few people are interested in normal artists? The main hype is around people who have openly gone, such as Frida, Van Gogh, etc.

By the way, Van Gogh! Throughout his difficult life, he never sold a single painting of his (more precisely, one, and even that one was bought out of pity). But still he continued to write and draw with the ferocity of a fanatic. And if he was faced with a dilemma - to starve or draw, then he chose drawing... In one of the psychoses, he even chopped off his own ear. His biography clearly stands out from many other contemporaries. He is an excellent candidate for celestials from the arts. He was raised, singled out from the mass of artists for his torment and passion for painting, and everything else was to blur the eyes and minds of ordinary people.

Those. Roughly speaking, for a long time in the world of art there has been a circle of people who sell ordinary people the status of a “masterpiece” in relation to almost any painting by any artist, and those ordinary people pay them money for this. In fact, it is not the paintings themselves that are worth the money, but the biographies of the selected artists. And one more nuance: the future success of the artist and the cost of his paintings is also influenced by who will be the first to buy his painting. If a billionaire, then this automatically raises the status of the author and, accordingly, the cost of his paintings. An excellent example of this is Nikas Safronov.

5. Artist's ingenuity, or competent marketing.

It is impossible to think of a more brilliant example than Nikas Safronov! The most expensive painting by this artist, “Dreams of Italy,” costs $106,000. There is nothing special in Safronov’s paintings, there are tens of thousands of them in the galleries, such dreams about Italy. But just one costs a hundred thousand dollars. Why? As I wrote in the last paragraph, one of the most important factors in the status of an artist’s paintings is who owns his paintings. In the 90s, Safronov worked in the theater of the authoritative show business figure Donatas Bonionis, through whom he had the opportunity to contact Russian pop stars and famous political figures, to whom he took the opportunity to give self-portraits. This is how his paintings ended up in the homes of the elite. And so that they would be there for sure, he painted celebrities as nobles, kings, etc.

And then it was like this: “Wow. Pugacheva’s house has a painting by some Safronov hanging. Apparently he's cool. Find me his number and I’ll buy it too,” the oligarch or politician admired. This is how Safronov became a “Great” artist.

You could see the clearest example of such a feature during an exhibition of one artist in Moscow (I don’t remember who exactly). No one cared about her from the high bell tower, when suddenly she was visited by... Putin. The next day, a gigantic queue lined up outside the gallery of those who wanted to join in on the high artistic value. It’s just that Putin, with his walk, showed the pack of primates that the exhibition of this artist’s paintings is a status event, that’s all.

6. Picture-stock exchange

“Masterpieces” for their private owners, in addition to show-off, are banknotes of a very large (and, as the owner hopes, growing) denomination. This is a specific financial instrument in which money is invested when there is a lot of extra money. For example, we can recall Japanese collectors who began to buy works of art and simply rare things around the world just when the Central Bank of Russia rate became indecently low.

Well, you can trade them, like on the stock exchange: you buy a painting and wait for its price to rise. And how much it will grow depends on how much it and its author will be promoted, how deep a meaning they will come up with for it. By the way, the price is rising not only because of the difficult life of the author, as stated above, but also because of the difficult history of the painting itself. So, periodically, some crazy people attack the paintings, pouring paint on them. In the Louvre, for example, this is generally the norm. The paradox is that after such attacks, the paint is, of course, washed off, but the paintings are rapidly rising in price, because they have such a story: the painting was attacked, doused with paint, and was miraculously saved. Personally, I am inclined to believe that such attacks are organized directly by the owners of the paintings (individual or legal) so that the asset continues to rise in price.

If the incredible suddenly happens and the paintings begin to rapidly fall in price, I assure you that all their owners will immediately forget about their unsurpassed historical value and maniacally begin to sell them, as happens with illiquid securities on the market.

I am in no way saying that any of these artists are bad: no, they are all talented in their own way. Even Nikas Safronov, who is subject to severe criticism among experts. In any case, in my life I will never draw the way he draws. We're talking about something else here. We are talking about the reasons for the inadequate cost of painting. And it seems to me that I have described the entire process of pricing, and most importantly, the reasons that motivate the consumer to form such prices, more than convincingly! But the quality of the painting, its artistic value and aesthetic pleasure from contemplation have nothing to do with cost. And if someone starts telling you about this, then he’s just a star.

1. Introduction.

Over the course of thousands of years, China has developed a vibrant culture.

The culture of China was influenced by the attitude towards nature as an organic whole, living according to its own laws.

It was nature and the laws of its development that were at the center of creative searches, which for a long time determined the features of the development of all types of art without exception. Human life in China was measured against the life of nature, its cycles, rhythms, and states. In Greece, man was “the measure of all things,” but in China he is only a small particle of nature.

Confucianism and Buddhism have influenced Chinese culture. Many Chinese achievements date back to the Middle Ages.

China has surpassed all countries in the world,
He reached the top in all arts.

2. Masterpieces of Chinese architecture.

The peculiarity of Chinese architecture is that the architects could find the most picturesque and natural place for architecture. Monasteries rise at the top of mountains, Chinese temples and pagodas are built in hard-to-reach places, stone steles rise along the edges of roads, and luxurious palaces of emperors are erected in the center of bustling cities.

It stretches for 5 km along the northwestern border The great Wall of China. Its construction dates back to the 4th-3rd centuries and was completed in the 15th century. Its purpose is to protect the Chinese state from attacks by nomadic tribes from the north. A road 5-8 meters wide was laid along its top for the advancement of troops. This structure was designed to protect the power of the Chinese state.

One of the most common buildings has become pagoda - a memorial tower erected in honor of the deeds of great people.

The pagoda is distinguished by its grandiose dimensions and reaches a height of 50 meters. The appearance of the pagoda is simple, and almost no decorative elements are used in it. A distinctive feature of the pagoda is the pointed edges of the roof. This makes the building lighter and emphasizes its upward direction.

The 64-meter Dayanta Pagoda (Great Wild Goose Pagoda) is one of the best examples of Chinese style in architecture. The name of the pagoda goes back to the legend of the famous pilgrim who, during his journey from India to China, was helped to find his way by wild geese. They indicated the place for the construction of the pagoda. Dayanta, against the backdrop of a vast mountain range, rises above the outskirts of the city of Xi'an - the former capital of the Chinese state. Seven floors, separated from each other by cornices, taper towards the top of the pagoda, emphasizing its aspiration to the sky. That is why from a distance it gives the impression of heaviness and massiveness.

Thanks to its elongated proportions, the pagoda appears light and graceful.

The illusion of height is created by windows rounded at the top. In the simple and straight lines of the pagoda, the architect was able to express the sublime spiritual impulse and greatness of his time.

Buddhist cave temples located in the mountains have become an extraordinary phenomenon in architecture. Cave Buddhist

Monastery Yungang belongs to the masterpieces of world architecture. A 60 m high cliff stretches for almost 2 km, in which there are over 20 caves at various heights. Some of them reach a height of 15 m. And are deepened into the rock by 9-10 m. Each of the caves is dedicated to a specific Buddhist god. Inside there are many images of sculptures and reliefs on themes of Buddhist tales and legends. Outside, the rock is decorated with sculptural monuments, bas-reliefs, and statues. The cave temple amazes with its grandeur.

The main form of religious and residential buildings in China is a rectangular pavilion, the main feature of which is carved brackets supporting the roof. A high 2-, 3-, 4-slope roof is a characteristic element of Chinese Architecture. Inside, the building is divided into 2 or 3 naves, and outside it has a gallery with pillars that also support the roof.

Such a roof protected from snow and rain. The roof slopes had a strictly curved shape, its ends bent upward. Ceramic figurines depicting fantastic animals and dragons were mounted on the roof ridges, and later bells were hung.

The emblem of China has become Sky Temple in Pekin. 2-tier conical roof, glazed blue tiles conical roofs represent like a dazzling mountain peak.

The grandiose complex is dedicated to ancient religious cults associated with harvesting. In which heaven and earth were revered. It was this circumstance that determined the originality of the architectural design. Enclosed by walls, it includes 3 main shrines: a round wooden temple of Prayers for the Harvest, a temple of the Firmament and a white marble altar where sacrifices were made to the spirits of Heaven. There is a lot of symbolism in this architectural temple: the square area of ​​the palace symbolizes the Earth, the temple buildings and the altar. Framed by a round terrace - the sign of the Sun, the pointed peaks of the conical roofs represent

A continuous cycle of movements of natural elements. The viewer slowly walks between the arches, climbing numerous steps, gradually getting used to the rhythm of the ensemble, comprehending its beauty and grandeur.

Chinese gardening art has gained worldwide fame.

A true masterpiece of landscape art - Benhai complex in Beijing.

The symmetrical layout of the Imperial Garden includes slides made of massive stone blocks, bamboo groves, plantings of rare trees and shrubs. Elegant gazebos and pavilions with a fancy pattern of golden roofs along the banks of the

milking with goldfish. The names of the pavilions reflect the most important periods of the agricultural cycle (ten thousand autumns, ten thousand springs) - plowing and harvesting. About 700 mosaic panels made of multi-colored stones decorate the garden and park complex. They depict picturesque landscapes, exquisite plants, mythological heroes, scenes from theater and opera productions.

In the Imperial Garden there is a collection of stones of the most bizarre shapes, brought from different parts of China.

Next to these unusual exhibits, in winter, pine trees turn green and unfading bamboo rustles, and in spring, wild meihua plum and white-pink peonies bloom luxuriantly. At the beginning of autumn, the cinnamon tree exudes its aroma, and chrysanthemums captivate with their beauty.

3. Sculpture of China.

The sculpture has always been popular in China. It expressed the idea of ​​power and unlimited power, back in the 3rd century. BC, when the state of Qin was formed.

During archaeological excavations in Shaanxi province, a 10,000-strong army made of terracotta was discovered in the underground corridors of burial complexes. Life-size soldiers and officers, archers and infantrymen, charioteers and horsemen, with full military equipment, demonstrated the power of the emperor who created the first Chinese power.

All figures are full of expression, verisimilitude and variety of movements. Military leaders are depicted frozen in solemn poses, archers pull a tight bowstring, soldiers kneeling on one knee are preparing to defeat an invisible enemy. A hierarchy of ranks emerged in the coloring book. 130 clay chariots and 500 sculpted horses were also discovered. The clay army, built in battle formation, faithfully guarded the peace of its ruler.

Funerary sculpture was further developed in the art of the 7th-13th centuries. The funeral ensemble near Xi'an, the capital of the Chinese Empire, was decorated with sculptural works in which scenes of court life were reproduced: graceful dancers in the rhythms of dance, fashionistas in bright clothes, jugglers and musicians, servants and nomads.

A characteristic feature is the connection of the sculpture with the Buddhist religion. Here you can see terrible guards of the entrance, trampling dragons, Buddhist saints, a monumental image of Buddha. One of the most perfect sculptures is a 25-meter statue Buddha Vairocanna.(Lords of Cosmic Light), carved into the mountains in Lunmen Cave.

4. Genres of Chinese painting.

The desire to comprehend through particulars the universal laws of existence and the interrelation of phenomena is a characteristic feature of Chinese painting. It is mainly represented by vertical and horizontal scrolls made of silk and paper. Vertical scrolls were hung on the walls and did not exceed 3 m. Horizontal scrolls were intended for long-term viewing and reached several meters .Unfolding such a scroll, the viewer seemed to go on a journey.

Pictures were usually painted in ink or mineral paints, accompanied by calligraphic inscriptions.

The artist either quoted poetry or composed poetry himself.

Chinese painting is represented by various genres: landscape, everyday life, portrait, historical and everyday life. Of particular interest are images such as “mountains-water”, “flowers-birds”. Chinese artists knew how to express the idea of ​​the boundlessness of the world. In the majestic image of the world of mountains, forests and rivers you can see small figures of travelers. They are not in a hurry, they are simply contemplating the beauty.

On a mountain top
I spend the night in an abandoned temple.
I can touch the twinkling stars with my hand.
I'm afraid to speak loudly:
With earthly words
I am the inhabitants of the sky
I don't dare disturb the peace
Li Bo. “Temple on the top of the mountain.”

This is how the Chinese poet Li Bo expressed the harmony between man and nature.

Landscape painting in China is not rich in colors. Often it is monochrome, but there are so many shades and combinations in it. The artists have achieved enormous skill in conveying aerial perspective. The format and compositional solution of the painting was carefully thought out. To depict a chain of mountains, a horizontal format of the scroll was chosen, for a mountainous area with pointed peaks of pine trees, a vertical format was chosen.

“You cannot give trees without number: it is more important to show how slender and lovely the mountains are. Among the rocks, overhanging and dangerous cliffs, it would be nice to shelter a strange tree. Distant mountains should be lowered and laid out, while nearby groves should be allowed to emerge sharply.”

There are many symbols in the landscapes of Chinese artists: a pair of ducks symbolized family happiness, a pheasant - a successful career, a lotus flower - a symbol of purity, flexible bamboo - wisdom and resistance to life's adversities, a pine tree - an allegory of longevity, a blooming meihua plum - a symbol of nobility and perseverance.

One of the soulful artists of lyrical landscape is Guo Xi. It is in the variability of nature that its beauty lies.

Ma Yun’s monochrome painting “Ducks, Rocks and Meihua” is exquisitely simple and laconic.

The portrait genre is one of the oldest in Chinese painting. It has been known since the 5th century. BC e., associated with the cult of ancestors. The image of the poet Li Bo is embodied in the portrait of Liang Kai.