Features of medieval archaic epics. Features of literature of the ancient Middle Ages
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Thematic list of lectures
History of foreign literature
(Middle Ages and Renaissance)
Lecture No. 1.
Features of the development of literature of the Middle Ages.
Archaic epic.
1. Features of the development of literature of the Middle Ages.
3. Distinctive features of the archaic epic.
4. Ideological and artistic originality of the poem “Beowulf”.
1. Features of the artistic development of literature of the Middle Ages.
The literature of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance chronologically follows ancient literature and occupies a significant place in the global development of culture.
This literature reflected important events and phenomena characteristic of the long period of its formation, covering about 12 centuries.
The beginning of this period is conventionally considered to be the year 476, when the last ancient state, the Western Roman Empire, fell, and the end is the first third of the 17th century.
This literature (as for its European part) was created in young European countries that arose from the ruins of the Roman Empire. Its creators were multi-tribal, multi-lingual peoples - Celtic, Roman, Germanic, Slavic and other origins, who at that time appeared on the historical arena with fresh spiritual forces.
The origin and development of medieval literature is determined by the interaction of 3 main factors:
a) traditions of folk art;
b) cultural influence of the ancient world;
c) Christianity.
In ancient times, time was a vicious circle. In the Middle Ages, this circle was opened. Time becomes linear and moves from the past to the future.
The past is Old Testament history, i.e. the time before the descent of Jesus Christ to earth. But despite this mission, humanity has not gotten rid of sins and therefore the future is coming, the Last Judgment is coming.
Although time moves, the world around us remains constant. All these thoughts about time are set out in Aurelius Augustine’s treatise “On the City of God.”
The work expresses the idea of the rivalry between two cities: the secular (worldly) city and the divine (spiritual) city. And, of course, the victory of the city of God is inevitable, since the Roman Empire collapsed, but the city it created remained. This struggle is predetermined by the will of God and its outcome is known in advance. Thus, the concept of time and history in literature takes on a fatalistic character.
The future is known: this is the Last Judgment, the victory of the city of God.
The concept of man In the era of paganism, literature was dominated by the view of man as a unity of the material and spiritual. Man was thought of as a part of nature, and there was an opinion that after death the human soul continues to live, acquiring a new essence.
In the Middle Ages, the spiritual and the material were sharply divided and opposed to each other.
Aurelius Augustine believed that the human soul is one and only. God created it separately from the body. After completing earthly life, the soul again appears before the gods, and on the basis of its earthly deeds it will be given hell or heaven.
There were 2 concepts of man:
1) characteristic of the Middle Ages. It was argued that man is a vessel of sin, an insignificant worm and the dust of God. A person without a soul is nothing.
2) opposite to the first. It arose during the Renaissance. Man is the center of the world. A person carries within himself a whole Universe of thoughts and feelings. All the great natural forces of man must be directed towards one goal:
save a person from sinfulness and grant him immortality.
Man in the Middle Ages was not yet divorced from general generic principles, and therefore the stronger the general in a person, the more significant he is, and the stronger the personal in him, the less interesting he is.
The main focus is on eternal values. Therefore, the hero of medieval literature is largely impersonal. Medieval man asserts himself in the world centrifugally. He strives to dissolve his personality, his Self in the world around him.
2. Periodization of medieval literature.
1) the early Middle Ages begins with the fall of the Roman Empire and covers the period from the 5th to the 10th centuries. In literature, this period is represented by the archaic epic.
2) mature Middle Ages (XI – XII centuries). At this time, heroic epic and knightly literature were actively developing.
3) late Middle Ages (XII - XIV) The heyday of cities and therefore urban literature. Then the Middle Ages give way to the Renaissance (beginning of the XIV - beginning of the XVII centuries).
Early Middle Ages.
Archaic epic.
Historically, the archaic epic covers the period from the 5th to the 10th centuries. However, this boundary is vague. Thus, in England, works of archaic epic were created before the 9th century, and in Ireland the process dragged on until the 13th century.
Archaic epics are monuments of folk art that have existed in oral form for centuries.
Archaic epic tends towards collectivism. And although it tells about people, a person is interesting not in himself, but as an exponent of a common generic principle.
Despite all the differences in the conditions and time of origin, content and style, early medieval epics have a number of typological features that distinguish them from the epic monuments of the mature Middle Ages.
3. Distinctive features of the works of archaic epic.
1. Works of archaic epic are characterized by mythologization of the past, i.e. the narrative of historical events is combined with 2. The main theme of the epic cycles of this period is the struggle of man with the forces of nature hostile to him, embodied in fairy-tale images of monsters, dragons, and giants.
3. The main character is a fairy-tale-mythological character endowed with wonderful properties and qualities (flying through the air, being invisible, growing in size).
4. Epic generalization is achieved in works by means of mythological fiction.
The oldest monument in Europe is the Anglo-Saxon epic.
Reference: The Angles and Saxons are tribes of Germanic origin who, in the middle of the 5th century, invaded the British Isles from the European continent and, after a fierce struggle, ousted the Celts, occupying the south, center and northeast of modern England. From this time on, the independent development of Anglo-Saxon culture and literature began.
The most significant work of the Anglo-Saxon epic is the poem Beowulf.
4.Ideological and artistic originality of the poem “Beowulf”.
The only existing manuscript of Beowulf dates back to approximately 1000. But the epic itself, according to most experts, dates back to the end of the 7th or the first third of the 8th century. At that time, the Anglo-Saxons were already experiencing the beginning of the process of the emergence of feudal ties. The poem is characterized by epic archaization.
The poem was written by two different scribes. The manuscript is currently kept in the British Museum in London. It was opened relatively late. It was mentioned in print for the first time in 1705. In 1731 it was badly damaged by fire. It was first published by the Dane Thorkelin in 1815, and the first English edition dates back to 1833. The poem depicts reality from a specific point of view: the world of Beowulf is a world of kings and warriors, a world of feasts, battles and duels.
The poem falls into two parts, connected only by the personality of the main character, Beowulf. Each of these parts mainly recounts the exploits of Beowulf; the first tells how Beowulf saved a neighboring country from two terrible monsters, the second tells how he reigned in his homeland and ruled happily for fifty years, how he defeated a fire-breathing dragon, and how he himself died from the poisonous wounds inflicted on him by the dragon and was honorably buried by his squad.
First part. The fight with Grendel The hero of the poem, a young warrior from the Gaut tribe, Beowulf, sails with his squad to the land of the Danes to come to the aid of King Hrothgar.
Once upon a time, Hrothgar erected the banquet hall Heorot - the “chamber of the deer”.
The sounds of harps, songs and the serene fun that reigned in Heorot were hated by the gloomy giant Grendel, who lived in a swamp, surrounded by foggy wastelands and dark thickets. The monster attacked the sleeping warriors and tore thirty of them to pieces at once. For twelve years Grendel devastated Hrothgar's domain; sorrow and despondency reigned in the king's palace. The weapons forged by men were powerless to kill the giant; Beowulf defeated Grendel only in hand-to-hand combat; he hung his huge paw over the roof of the palace like a trophy.
Hrothgar and his wise wife Walhtheow generously gifted Beowulf and arranged a feast in honor of his victory, at which singer-storytellers glorified the exploits of ancient heroes. But in the dead of midnight, Grendel's mother came to avenge her son's death. She killed the Dan warrior, stole Grendel's paw and disappeared to the bottom of the abyss. Beowulf fearlessly descended into the abyss and fought the monster in an underwater cave. There he found a gigantic sword, with which he killed the giantess and cut off the head of the dead Grendel. The sword, stained with the blood of monsters, melted like ice in his hands. Beowulf brought Grendel's head and the golden sword hilt as a gift of bark to the Danes as a sign of his victory.
The first part of the poem will end with a solemn description of the return of Beowulf and his squad to their homeland.
Second part. The Death of Beowulf The second part of the epic tale introduces Beowulf as the mighty king of the Gauts, who happily ruled his land for 50 years. His life ends with one last great feat. A once unreasonable man stole a precious cup from the dragon guarding the treasure, which brought his wrath upon the country. Breathing fire, every night the dragon burned the Gaut villages, destroying everything around. Beowulf killed the dragon, but he himself died from its deadly bite. Before his death, the hero asks the warrior Wiglaf, who fought with him, to let him admire the wonderful treasure. Amid cries and lamentations, the warriors build a funeral pyre on the seashore and bury Beowulf’s ashes under a high mound, where the treasure he conquered will be hidden forever.
The poem about Beowulf, however, directly goes back to the pre-Christian heroic folk-epic tradition, as evidenced by its metrics, style, plot and images. The alliterative verse of Beowulf (as well as other monuments of the Anglo-Saxon epic) is extremely close to the alliterative verse of Scandinavian and ancient German folk epic poetry. There are four main stresses in the line (two in each short verse), of which the third (main) alliterates with the first, sometimes with the second, rarely with the fourth. Just as in the Edda, Beowulf widely uses synonyms, kennings (such as “lightning of battle” instead of “sword”, “helm of the night” instead of “darkness”, etc.) and twin pair formulas ( two words that are alliterative and correlated in meaning). In Beowulf, to a greater extent than in the Edda, features of a “formular” style are revealed - commonplaces, constant epithets, indirectly indicating folklore genesis. On the other hand, in Beowulf
there are “transfers” (not typical for the Edda) - the fruit of a book adaptation of a folklore work.
From the point of view of its genre nature, Beowulf, in contrast to the Eddic songs, represents an example of the large epic form. In Beowulf, just like in the Homeric epic, the descriptive element is developed, the action unfolds gradually, the narrative is replete with digressions and retardant details, etc. Particularly characteristic of Beowulf
detailed description of clothing and weapons, ceremonies at the feast. "Beowulf"
lacks the swiftness and intense lyricism of the Edda, but the author’s attitude to the characters and events is still more “personal” than Homer’s, which is expressed in the hymnic or elegiac tone found in certain places of the poem. In the form that has come down to us, Beowulf is distinguished by great compositional harmony, supported by thematic unity.
The main plot of the poem consists of two independent episodes, united by the theme of the fight against “monsters” that interfere with the peaceful life of people.
The poem, which began with a picture of the funeral of the first Danish king Scyld Skefing, ends with a description of the solemn funeral of Beowulf. This main “double” plot is supplemented by retellings of songs allegedly performed en masse at a feast in Heorot - about the snake-wrestling of Sigmund (in the Scandinavian tradition, Sigmund is not a snake-wrestler, but the father of the snake-wrestler Sigurd) and about the Battle of Finnsburg.
The main story is interspersed with numerous historical reminiscences (in the form of memories, predictions, allusions) and genealogical information about the Danish, Swedish and Gautian kings. The Gauts (Geats) are an East Germanic tribe that lived in southern Scandinavia, apparently the closest relatives of the Goths.
Historical names and facts mentioned in Beowulf also appear in historical chronicles, the legendary history of the Danes by Saxo Grammar, the Icelandic historical sagas about the Swedish kings Ynglings, the Danish Skeddungs (especially the Saga of Hrolf Kraki).
The historical and legendary motifs of Beowulf generally reflect intertribal relations before the migration of the Angles and Saxons to Britain.
Perhaps there is a continuous epic tradition that connects Beowulf to this time. Almost all the characters are Scandinavians and are known simultaneously from Scandinavian legends. Only the king Offa mentioned in Beowulf is English.
Close parallels to the main plot of Beowulf’s struggle with Grendel and his mother are also contained in the Icelandic sagas (the saga of Hrolf Kraki, the saga of Grettir, as well as Samson, and Orm Storolfsson). Thus, it remains to be assumed that the legend of Beowulf dates back to the Scandinavian sources from the most ancient era, when the Angles and Saxons neighbored the Danes on the continent.
Unlike many epic heroes who act in the interests of their own tribe (such as the Irish Cuchulainn), Beowulf is a defender of humanity, but humanity itself is represented by the friendly tribes of the Danes and Gauts.
Beowulf is not a historical figure; in any case, he was not a Gautian king, as evidenced by his name, which does not alliterate with the names of other Gautian kings and is not mentioned in other sources on Gautian genealogy.
2. Zhirmunsky, V.M. Folk heroic epic by V.M. Zhirmunsky. – M.; L., 1962. – 435 p.
For philol. specialist. universities M.P. Alekseev [and others]; under general ed. Ya. Zasursky. 4th ed. – Moscow: Higher School, 1987. – 415 p.
allowance for students higher textbook establishments of A.L. Yashchenko [and others]; under general ed. O.L.
Moshchanskaya, N.M. Ilchenko. – Moscow: Humanit. ed. Vlados center, 2002 – 2008s.
Plan 1. The problem of the origin of the heroic epic.
The heroic epic is called classical or state, because. by the time of creation it reflects early feudal relations.
1. The problem of the origin of the heroic epic.
In the 19th century, the theory of the editorial code was created. Author: Gaston Paris.
When any historical event occurs, the people create a song about it. These songs vary, change, and a moment comes when the poet-editor mechanically combines all the songs into a single whole. This is how an epic emerges.
The theory under consideration emphasizes the folk origins of the epic and denies its individual authorship.
The second theory, the monastic-juggler theory, arose in the twentieth century. The author is French philologist Joseph Bedier.
medieval monasteries were centers of cultural life.
The monks wrote down legends and tales, and these, in turn, were taken as a basis by the singers and jugglers and created epic works based on written monuments.
The most important monuments of the mature Middle Ages include the French “Song of Roland”, the Spanish “Song of My Cid”, the German “Song of the Nibelungs”, the East Slavic “Tale of Igor’s Host”.
statehood, the fight against internal feudal anarchy and foreign aggression.
According to the figurative expression of the Spanish scientist Rodrigo Minendez Pidal, “in the beginning there was history...”, i.e. every epic work in its original form was based on direct impressions of historical events. It was fixed in poetic form at a time when these events were still fresh in memory. This determined the problems of epic works and the character of their main character.
The main character is a legendary hero, defender of his native land from external enemies and feudal strife. He is not endowed with the mythological properties of the characters of the early medieval epic, but his extraordinary physical strength, unbending courage, military valor, and moral perfection embody the popular idea of a heroic personality and the norms of his behavior.
2. Distinctive features of the heroic epic.
1. In the heroic epic, mythological and fairy tales are almost obliterated 2. Ethical generalization is expressed by means of heroic idealization;
3. The central theme is connected with the most important events of the national 4. The hero has a historical prototype;
5. The hero’s opponent is equal to him in strength and is a representative of another people or another faith;
6. Tribal patriotism turns out to be obsolete, it is replaced by the pathos of the national feudal state;
7. The historical background and historical realities are significantly deepened;
8. The features of the feudal state are reflected: vassal dependence, feudal anarchism;
9. In the classical epic we do not find motives for social rebellion.
The hero does not yet oppose himself to people.
3. Ideological and artistic originality of “Song of Roland”.
The French heroic epic has come down to us in the form of poems (about 100 in total), of which the oldest, in the form in which we now have them, arose at the end of the 11th century, and the latest date back to the 14th century.
But even the earliest surviving poems represent a reworking of older poems or songs that had previously developed over the course of 2 or 3 centuries. This is a long-term development in which various social strata took part - the druzhina environment. The poems that have survived to us are called chansons de gesta ("songs about deeds"). They vary in length from 1000 to lines and consist of unequal length stanzas, or “tirades.” These poems were meant to be sung. As in our epics, the same melody ran throughout the entire poem, repeating itself from line to line.
Their performers, and often their authors, were jugglers who carried them throughout France. Having attracted attention to himself, having gathered a small circle of listeners, the juggler, with an energetic voice, invited them to silence and then began to sing a recitative, accompanying himself on a small harp or viol.
If he did not have time to finish the entire poem before nightfall, he interrupted the singing and postponed it until the next day. If the poem was very extensive, it was sometimes enough for a week.
Three poems make up the content of the French epic:
1. Defense of the homeland from external enemies - Moors, Normans, Saxons, etc.;
2. Faithful service to the king, protection of his rights and the eradication of traitors;
3. Bloody feudal strife.
The choice of these themes corresponds to the then political consciousness of the masses, who were drawn to national unity, who saw in the feudal lords the main evil that tormented their homeland, and who dreamed of finding protection in the king from their arbitrariness and cruelty.
The first two themes in the poems are associated with the image of a kind and wise king. In most poems, the king is called Charlemagne (768 - 814), he is idealized: he is always fair and usually affectionate, although, when necessary, he can be harsh. He is formidable to traitors and invincible in battle. His enemies tremble before him, and God is his helper in all matters.
In some poems, Karl appears actively, personally performing various feats.
They describe how in his youth, fleeing from traitors, he flees to Spain, fights valiantly there, wins the love of the daughter of the Saracen king, then returns to France and, having defeated the villains, is crowned, etc. However, in other poems, and artistically more significant ones, K. fades into the background: uniting and illuminating with his presence the entire action, he cedes an active role to the paladins (close glorious knights), in particular the twelve “peers” (the most noble persons in the state), first of all to Roland.
That. The first cycle of the French heroic epic is the cycle about Charlemagne, the most famous work of this cycle is “The Song of Roland”.
2nd cycle about a faithful vassal (reflects the era after the death of Charles. Charles’s son is weak and the fate of the state is taken into his own hands by a faithful vassal).
This cycle is connected with the second theme - the theme of faithful service to the king, rescued from trouble - represented by poems about Guillaume d'Orange.
[Count Guillaume fights in the south of France with the Moors, performing miracles of courage, liberating cities and entire regions from the “infidels” and not receiving any reward from the king for this, except for those lands that he obtains with the power of his sword. Nevertheless, in difficult times for the king, Guillaume d'Orange always rushes to the king's aid and helps him out].
3rd baronial cycle - reflects the era of the collapse of the Frankish empire. Theme of feudal strife. Represented by the poems of "Raoul de Cambrai" (nephew of Louis IV).
It arose in 1100, shortly before the first crusade. The main merit of the juggler was that he preserved the deep meaning and expressiveness of the ancient heroic legend and, connecting its meaning with living modernity, found a brilliant artistic form for their expression.
The “Song” is based on real events recorded in historical documents of the era.
In 778 Charlemagne, having intervened in the internal strife of the Moors, undertook a campaign in Spain, where he captured several cities and besieged Zaragoza.
But, unable to take it, he was forced to return to France. While crossing the Pyrenees, the rearguard of Charlemagne's troops was attacked by the Basques who inhabited the eastern part of the peninsula and was defeated. Hruodland, margrave of Brittany, died in the battle along with other noble warriors.
In the work, this rather insignificant event, which had no consequences, was transformed by the creative imagination of the singers into a majestic and tragic picture of a patriotic feat for the glory of their native land.
The poem tells of the struggle of Christians with the prisoners, the heroic death of Roland, the betrayal of his stepfather Ganelon, and the revenge of Charlemagne for the death of Roland.
If in “Beowulf” we observed a synthesis of Christian and Christian elements even in the image of the main character, then in “The Song of Roland” Christian symbolism is intended to show the rightness and lordship of Roland’s grandfather, who is a vassal of both Charles and God, and to “denigrate” the Moors. It is no coincidence that Roland, dying, gives his glove to the angel; God stops the sun so that Karl has time to defeat the Moors. An important role in the poem is played by Archbishop Turpin, a warrior priest who absolves the sins of the dying and himself participates in the battle.
M.I. Steblin emphasizes that the moral essence of Christianity in the Middle Ages was the generous rewarding of all the righteous and the punishment of all sinners.
Contrast and hyperbolization serve to reveal the patriotic-religious idea of the work. The composition is of great parity, and the technique of parallelism is widely used:
Plot (betrayal of Ganelon): the Zaragoza king Marsilius sends ambassadors to Charles in order to force the king of the Franks, who conquered all of Spain, to return to France with false promises.
Charles sends a return embassy to Marsilius, led by Ganelon, who betrays Charles.
Climax (battle): 12 noble Moors and 12 Frankish ones die Denouement (Charles revenge): punishment of the Moors and punishment of the traitor We observe techniques of hyperbolization in descriptions of battles and the physical strength of warriors. The principle of contrast is the basis of the system of images: the young, brave, reckless Roland is contrasted with the gray-bearded King Charles, his prudent friend Olivier, and the traitor Ganelon.
Count Roland is the central character of the poem. A dramatic struggle unfolds around him. Love for “dear France”, devotion to the overlord, ardor and courage are the defining traits of his character. At the same time, Roland is to some extent to blame for the death of the detachment: he refuses to ask for help in time - to blow the horn and encourage Karl to return. In “Song,” the theme of heroic self-will takes the form of “tragic guilt.”
The qualities of a hero that are attractive in another situation (courage, bravery, personal honor) contribute to the death of his soldiers and his own.
In the spirit of traditional epic monumental idealization, the image of the monarch, Charlemagne, is maintained, but he is not the hero around whom the action is centered.
Ganelon (in other transcriptions Gwenelon) is also a brave warrior, but because of a personal grudge he betrays his homeland. Unlike the villains of the early epic, Ganelon has an attractive appearance (“his face is proud, his eyes sparkle brighter…”). He dies not at the hands of a warrior in a duel, but after “God’s judgment”, which exposed his betrayal, and his death is painful.
The basis of the poem is the narrative of battles, which depict to us a chain of fights. There are no pictures of peaceful life and love intrigue in the poem. Roland's bride, Alda, dying of grief over the death of Roland, appears at the end of the poem. Roland, dying, grieves for France, friends, but not for his bride.
Roland possesses the valor and determination that helped him become the best commander of Charles's army. However, he is characterized by everyday weaknesses: ardor, reckless imprudence and some boasting.
In the first place in the poem is the image of Roland. Nothing is said about his childhood, but the cyclical poems clarify his relationship and family ties with Karl, and also help to understand the reason for Gwenelon’s hostility towards his stepson.
Here, in the poem itself, the folklore theme of the unfortunate fate of a stepson or stepdaughter was not developed due to other ideological tasks. The episodes associated with Roland are distinguished by their lyrical coloring, which is greatly facilitated by the dynamic style of presentation. Ridicule and direct challenge towards Gwenelon are replaced by persistence and a biased understanding of military honor in a conversation with his best friend, Olivier, when it comes to calling for help from Charles’s troops . Olivier's proposal to blow the horn of Oliphant Roland perceives as an admission of weakness unworthy of a brave knight, and prefers an unequal battle with the Saracens, threatening the death of the entire rearguard. Disagreements between friends escalate again when Roland, convinced of the hopelessness of the created situation, is ready to blow the horn, but this time Olivier, who perfectly assessed the hopelessness of the situation, considers it unacceptable to turn to Charles, since this discredits the title of a valiant and courageous warrior. Only the intervention of Archbishop Turpin reconciles friends, although the rightness remains on Olivier's side. The stern character of Roland is endowed with the attractive features of constancy in the unknown boundaries of friendship, loyalty to serving France and its sovereign; This last feature is given special importance, since Roland is characterized as an ideal knight, a loyal vassal of his overlord and a defender of the “true” faith of Christianity. If the theme of friendship is clearly expressed in the character of Roland, then the theme of love does not occupy a prominent place in the poem: Olivier's threat to deny Roland the hand of his sister Alda does not create any particular conflict.
The image of the medieval warrior Olivier helps to clarify the appearance.
The characters of the two friends are contrasted by the words of the song itself: “Olivier is wise, and Count Roland is fearless.” This wisdom helps Olivier look at things soberly, understand the situation and correctly assess the qualities of his comrades and enemies. He not only helps Roland in the difficult Battle of Roncesvalles, but it is he who manages to correctly understand Gwenelon’s insidious plan and all its consequences. The qualities of personal courage are combined in Olivier with great military leadership talent. He does not have ostentatious panache and that share of arrogance that his friend possesses. He is sharp and direct in his judgments, and the final verdict on Roland’s recklessness is put into his mouth:
Our madness has destroyed us all, We will no longer serve Karl!..."
The scene in which the mortally wounded Olivier, not recognizing Roland, mistakes him for an enemy and cuts his helmet with a heavy blow of his sword, is particularly dramatic. In the last minutes of his friend's life, Rolanda is imbued with tenderness for him and finds expression of his grief in lamentation over a lifeless corpse. Thus, the lyrical form of lamentation for the dead seems to violate the unity of the epic tale. Roland and Olivier are among the twelve best generals of the Frankish peers. But the non-typical features that are characteristic of both of them are not repeated in the images of the other commanders of Charles. Their courage, valor, ability to wield weapons and fight, both on horseback and on foot, do not have a distinct individual association. They are more distinguished by their appearance, weapons, and the opponents with whom fate brings them together, than by the personal qualities unique to them. Nemon of Bavaria and Odger the Dane, although they have some features, their images are not as significant as the images of Archbishop Turpin.
Along with his general military qualities, Turpin has great moral authority, and even such a stubborn and headstrong warrior as Roland should listen to his words. In the heat of battle, this minister of the church does not forget his rank, supporting the vigor and courage of the soldiers not only with the power of the sword, but also with words of appeal, consolation and promises of “afterlife bliss.” He is an impartial judge in a dispute between two friends, and before his death he has to give absolution to all Christian soldiers.
However, his Christian virtues do not receive primary importance:
his military valor and courage are ranked higher. In some versions of the tales of the Caroline Wars, Turpin was the only one of the rearguard who survived the Battle of Ronsenval Gorge. It is impossible not to say that subsequently, with a comic interpretation of the plot, it was the character of the knight-cleric Turpin that underwent a thorough alteration; in a new role, the role of a comic character, he is depicted in the famous poem "Great Morgante", owned by the Italian poet of the 15th century - Lugi Pulci.
The image of Charlemagne is of great importance for the Frankish camp. His appearance, exceptional longevity, and traits of moral and physical superiority make him a typical figure of an epic tale. His inherent wisdom does not interfere with the passion with which he treats his nephew Roland (it must be taken into account that in some versions Roland is considered the son of Charles), and the arbitrariness that manifested itself in his decision about the embassy to Marsilius. What is especially difficult for Charles is not the huge losses that the rearguard suffered in the battle with the Saracens, but the death of twelve peers and, above all, Roland, for whose death he is ready to take revenge on the Saracens, regardless of new victims. His familial predilection for his nephew is so strong that Karl cannot escape the doubts and momentary hesitations that are characteristic of more ordinary warriors. Swords and spears again cross, armor and helmets crack, Franks and their opponents of different tribes fall from their war horses - the picture of the battle is complicated by the build-up of similar episodes.
The duel with Baligant ends with the victory of Charles, the victory of the Franks over the enemy. We must remember one more trait in the image of Karl - callousness and a certain insensitivity towards people. Upon returning to Aachen, Karl meets Alda, who lost her brother Olivier and fiancé Roland in the Battle of Ronsenval.
The girl’s grave grief does not touch the Karl, and he tries to console her by offering her a more profitable, in his opinion, marriage with his son Louis.
Karl seeks retribution against Gwenelon with exceptional persistence. In the person of Thiedry, he finds the defender of the deceased Roland. Although the French army suffered irreparable damage as a result of the death of many commanders, this does not prevent Charles from not only quartering the traitor Gwenelon, who received retribution as he deserved, but also from hanging all his relatives, brave and experienced warriors. Karl, like Roland, receives help and support from “heavenly forces. These heavenly powers at the end of the poem again call on Charles to war against the Saracens.” The heroes have a relationship with them that is in many ways reminiscent of the complex connections between the overlord and his vassals.
The image of the traitor Gwenelon stands out brightly and assertively in the poem. The typical properties of a brave warrior are fully inherent in Roland’s stepfather, but in his character one can see the traits of that unfaithful baron who puts personal, selfish interests above all else and goes to direct betrayal of his homeland.
He causes irreparable damage to France, driven by a thirst for revenge and selfish well-being. His behavior at the court of Marsilius is either courageous and honest, then, in connection with the plan that had already been hatched earlier, it is hypocritical and criminal. His condemnation does not meet with universal support; the power of blood and family mutual responsibility helps Gwenelon and allows him, despite the humiliation he has experienced, to hope for a successful outcome of the trial. His relatives almost achieve success, but objections from Thiedry, who defends the glorious name of Roland, force Pinabel to enter into a duel with him. The decision of Gwenelon's fate now began to depend on the result of the duel; defeat With the consistency of a man convinced of his right, several times in the poem Gwenelon cites as justification for his treacherous role the personal motives of revenge and retribution, which he stated at the beginning of the poem.
Most Saracen warriors have the entire list of necessary fighting qualities. The images of the Saracens are not much different from the images of the Franks.
The main contrast that is steadily drawn up here is the establishment of the true religion - Christianity and the humiliation of the false (pagan, in the understanding of the epic tale, religion) Islam. Their weapons and war horses are not inferior to those of the Franks, and it cannot be otherwise, because only in a battle with a worthy opponent can the superior features of the Franks be revealed. It also cannot be said that the minor characters of the Saracen camp are completely leveled out; they have their own negative traits. Among the enemies of France, the Saracen king Marsilius, Baligant and Aerolt stand out especially. Among them is the traitor Abismus. If Emir Baligant is not inferior to the King of the Franks in many of his actions and behavior, being depicted in the poem itself quite similar to Charles, then King Marsilius is much more independent. Traits of hypocrisy, cunning, and deceit inform the ruler. Zaragoza has memorable and personal properties. In the person of Blancadrin, King Marsilius finds he needs a diplomat who can successfully cope with a difficult mission. Marsilius fails in his political plans not because he underestimates the courage and tenacity of Roland’s army. The Saracen king has the necessary military skills, but the Battle of Ronsenval was the last in which he participated.
“The Song of Roland” tells the story of his loss of his right hand in this battle and the loss of white power as a warrior and sovereign. His complaints and lamentations about his sad fate bring something new to the image of the Saracen warrior. Baligant's attempt to defeat the troops of Charlemagne ended unsuccessfully, and with it the fate of King Marsilius, who tried to treasonably deceive the leader of the Franks, ends.
Female images in the epic tale of Roland occupy a modest place, while in a number of other poems on this plot they play a significant role. Alda's attractive and feminine character affirms the idea of fidelity and devotion to her chosen one no less than Roland, who serves his overlord in the name of fidelity and selflessness. Olivier remembers Alda in his dying hour and considers her a worthy companion to his beloved friend. However, the double loss of her fiancé and brother in the Battle of Ronsenwald deprives Alda of any desire to live, and in response to Charles’s proposal to make her the wife of his son and heir, Alda severely reproaches the king of the Franks and dies before his eyes. Bramimonda is the second female image, depicted more clearly than Alda, and represents to a certain extent a contrast to her husband. Gwenelon's arrival excites her as a woman, although the full development of their relationship is reflected only in cyclical poems. She is characterized by courage in her actions and that human dignity that the wounded Marsilius loses at the end of his life. If the Saracen warriors accept Christianity under duress, then Bramimonda does it voluntarily, and her baptism takes place, at the end of the campaign, in Aachen, where she is given a new name - Juliana. The motives of religious intolerance and Christianity as the best faith are widely pretended in the events and characters of the “Song of Roland”, but there is no doubt that it is the conversion of Bramimonda that is the main proof of the superiority of Christianity.
In the poem, the main characters are in the foreground; further - secondary ones, while ordinary soldiers are spoken of as tens and hundreds of thousands of brave fighters, or a list of numerous regiments, famous for their courage as commanders, is given. Those nameless participants in the war with the Moors who decided its fate remained without any assessment. The epic poem of the feudal Middle Ages depicted mainly warrior knights, speaking only in general, insignificant words about the main character of big events - simple, unpretentious people.
4. Ideological and artistic originality of “Songs about my Sid”.
SPANISH HEROIC EPIC
The Spanish heroic epic is distinguished by its deep originality, due to the peculiarities of historical development in the Middle Ages. At the beginning of the 5th century. The Iberian Peninsula was invaded by Germanic tribes, who quickly assimilated with its ancient Ibero-Roman population. The consequence of this was the establishment of royal power and the rapid development of large-scale agriculture, which in turn led to the establishment of feudal relations.The turning point in the historical fate of Spain was the invasion of it in 711. The Arabs, who over the course of several years captured almost the entire territory of the peninsula. Only in the far north did the independent kingdom of Asturias emerge. But immediately after this the Reconquista began, i.e. reconquest of the country by the Spaniards (UPI-XU). At the beginning of the 10th century. Asturias became the kingdom of Leon, from which in 1037 the independent kingdom of Castile emerged, which became the center of the national liberation movement. Another hotbed of the Reconquista in the northeast of the country was the kingdoms of Navarre and Aragon. All these kingdoms either entered into an alliance to fight the Moors, or fought with each other, calling on the same Arabs for help. Feudal strife, which slowed down the Reconquista, could not, however, prevent its successful completion. K ser.
In the 13th century, thanks to the efforts of the masses, the main driving force of the Reconquista, almost all of Spain was liberated from the Arab conquerors.
Rich in content and artistically expressive, the Spanish heroic epic reflected the most significant moments of national history.
The classical Spanish epic is presented in the form of poems (volume of 4000-5000, sometimes up to 8000 verses), consisting of stanzas of unequal length (from 5 to 40 verses each), associated with assonance.
The content of the Spanish heroic epic, in full accordance with national history, consists of three main themes: the struggle for the liberation of the country from foreign enslavement (“Song of my Cid”, 12th century), feudal civil strife that slowed down the cause of the Reconquista (song of the “Seven Infantes of Lara” ", the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th century), the establishment of the political primacy of Castile, which serves as a prerequisite for the national-political unification of all of Spain (poems about Fernand Gonzalez, 12th century). In individual poems these themes are intertwined.
The pinnacle of the Spanish folk epic is formed by the tales of Cid. This person is historical, and his actions are depicted in two poems that have come down to us: in the older and very close to historical facts “The Poem of the Cid” and in the later, rich in fiction poem “Rodrigo”, and in addition, in an extensive cycle of romances.
A comparison of the real Sid with his epic appearance will show in what direction folk fantasy developed the image of its beloved hero.
Ruy Diaz, nicknamed Cid, was born between 1025 and 1043. His nickname is a word of Arabic origin meaning "lord" ("sayid"); this title was often given to Spanish lords who also had Moors among their subjects: Ruy is a shortened form of the name Rodrigo. Cid belonged to the highest Castilian nobility, was the commander of all the troops of King Sancho II of Castile and his closest assistant in the wars that the king waged both with the Moors and with his brothers and sisters. When Sancho died during the siege of Zamora and his brother Alfonso VI, who spent his youth in Leon, ascended the throne, hostile relations were established between the new king, who favored the Leonese nobility, in particular the Counts de Carrion, who hated the Cid, and the latter. Alphonse, taking advantage of an insignificant pretext, expelled Sid from Castile in 1081.
For some time, Sid served with his retinue as a mercenary for various Christian and Muslim sovereigns, but then, thanks to his extreme dexterity and courage, he became an independent ruler and won the principality of Valencia from the Moors. After this, he made peace with King Alphonse and began to act in alliance with him against the Moors. The greatest feat of his life was the crushing blow he dealt to the Almoravids. This was the name of the North African tribes that converted to Islam and were distinguished by their fanaticism; they were called in 1086 by the king of Seville to help against the Spaniards who were oppressing him. Alfonso VI suffered several severe defeats from the Almoravids. On the contrary, all of Sid's clashes with the Almoravids were victorious for him. Particularly remarkable was the victory he won in 1094 on the Cuarto plain, in front of Valencia, when the Cid's horsemen routed the Almoravid army of 150,000 people.
The very name of Sid made the Moors tremble. Sid plotted the complete liberation of Spain from the Moors, but death in 1099 stopped his plans.
If in the first period of the Sid’s activity, before the exile, he was mainly occupied with feudal strife and the struggle of Castile for political hegemony, then after the exile, the fight against the Moors became his main task. Without a doubt, Sid was the largest figure of the reconquista at that time. This is what made him the greatest national hero of Spain during the Reconquista period, a beloved folk hero, “my Cid,” as he is constantly called in the poem dedicated to him. He showed great care and generosity towards his people, extreme simplicity in his behavior and democracy; all this attracted the hearts of warriors to him and created his popularity among the broad masses of the population. There is no doubt that even during Sid’s lifetime, songs and tales about his exploits began to be composed. These songs and stories, having spread among the people, soon became the property of the Khuglars, one of whom around 1140. wrote a poem about him.
The Song of Sid, containing 3735 verses, is divided into three parts.
The first (called by researchers the “Song of Exile”) depicts Sid’s first exploits in a foreign land. First, he gets money for the campaign by pawning chests filled with sand to Jewish moneylenders under the guise of family jewelry. Then, having gathered a detachment of sixty warriors, he enters the monastery of San Pedro de Cardeña to say goodbye to his wife and daughters there. After this he travels to Moorish land. Hearing of his expulsion, people flock to his banner. Cid wins a series of victories over the Moors and after each of them sends part of the booty to King Alphonse.
The second part ("The Wedding Song") depicts the Cid's conquest of Valencia. Seeing his power and touched by his gifts, Alphonse makes peace with Sid and allows his wife and children to move to Valencia with him. Then Sid meets with the king himself, who acts as a matchmaker, offering Sid the noble infantes de Carrion as his son-in-law. Sid, although reluctantly, agrees to this. He gives his sons-in-law two of his battle swords and gives a rich dowry for his daughters. A description of the magnificent wedding celebrations follows.
The third part (“Song of Korpes”) tells the following. Sid's sons-in-law turned out to be worthless cowards. Unable to tolerate the ridicule of Sid and his vassals, they decided to take it out on his daughters. Under the pretext of wanting to show their wives to their relatives, they prepared for the journey. Having reached the oak grove of Korpes, the husbands got off their horses, severely beat their wives and left them tied to the trees. The unfortunates would have died if not for Sid's nephew Felez Muñoz, who found them and brought them home. Sid demands revenge. The king convenes the Cortes to try the guilty. Sid comes there with his beard tied up so that no one will insult him by pulling his beard. The case is decided by judicial duel (“God’s court”). Sid's fighters defeat the defendants, and Sid triumphs. He unties his beard and everyone is amazed at his majestic appearance. New suitors are wooing Sid's daughters - the princes of Navarre and Aragon. The poem ends with a praise to Sid.
PROBLEMS OF “SONGS ABOUT MY SIDE”
“The Song of My Cid” is distinguished by high patriotism and genuine democracy, due to the nature of the Reconquista itself, of which it is a monument. Its main character, contrary to historical truth, despite revenge, is depicted as a knight who has vassals, but does not belong to the highest nobility.Sid sees the main goal of his liquid in the liberation of his native land. And in order to achieve this goal, he is ready to rise above personal grievances and interests.
Thus, seeing in royal power the guarantee of state unity, a necessary condition for a successful fight against the Moors, Sid forgives Alfonso’s exile. He shows constant care and attention to his squad, consisting mainly of peasants, townspeople, and small knights. In his relations with them, he is alien to any aristocratic arrogance, and people respond to him with love and respect. His image seemed to embody the characteristic features of the Spanish people: courage, fidelity to duty, self-esteem and simplicity, generosity, passion of feelings and restraint in their manifestation. Love for the homeland, courage, fortitude, kindness inherent and other positive images of the poem, and in particular Bishop Don Gerama, “the bravest of the prelates.” He, like Archbishop Turpen in the “Song of Roland,” simultaneously fights the Moors (“He cut with both his right and left hand. There are countless Arabs he killed in battle”) and blesses the Spanish soldiers for a feat of arms (“Who will die in battle facing the infidels, he is clean from sin and will go to heaven").
The democratic folk character of the poem is also manifested by its pronounced anti-aristocratic orientation. Representatives of the Spanish nobility, such as Count Berenguer, Don Garcia, Infantas Diego and Fernando de Carrios appear in the poem as arrogant, cruel, greedy people, for whom their personal selfish interests are above all. The images of the Infantes de Carrion are especially expressive. They marry Sid's daughters, attracted by their rich dowry. Brave in words, the infantas turn out to be cowards in practice.
Cowardice is combined in them with cruelty: for the ridicule to which they were subjected after the battle, the infantas take revenge not on Sid and his vassals, but on defenseless weak women. The democracy of the poem also affects its realistic manner of narration.
FEATURES OF THE STYLE OF THE WORK
"The Song of My Cid", closer to historical truth to a greater extent than any other monument of the heroic epic, gives a broad and truthful picture of medieval Spain in days of peace and in days of war. The author of the poem pays great attention to the everyday side of the life of his heroes. Talking about the battles of Sid with the Moors, he does not forget to list in detail each time the trophies received by the soldiers, to name the share of each of them, including Sid himself, and the gifts sent to the king. If the author talks about feasts, ceremonial receptions, celebrations, he will definitely note who paid for their organization. Throughout the poem, Sid behaves not like a wasteful nobleman, but like a reasonable, thrifty peasant. Even Sid’s relationship with the Virgin Mary is built on a “mutually beneficial basis”: before going into exile, he asks her for protection in exchange for future rich gifts:If you give me good luck in the campaign, I will sacrifice a lot on your altar, I will order you to serve. Unlike the French “Song of Roland,” the family theme occupies a prominent place in the Spanish poem. Sid is portrayed in it not only as a valiant warrior, defender of his native land, wise and far-sighted politician, but also as a loving husband, caring and gentle father. Love for his wife and daughters strengthens the hero’s courage and inspires him to new exploits in the fight against the Moors. “You are here - and my heart has become stronger,” admits Sid.
The style of “Song of My Sid” fully corresponds to its democratic and realistic content. The heroic in the poem is not separated from the everyday: objects, phenomena, characters are depicted simply, specifically, without idealization. The descriptions of battles and duels are less fierce and bloody than in the French epic. Absent in “Song of My Sid” is exaggeration of the military exploits of the heroes and Christian motives. Her heroes often pray, in difficult moments of life they remember the Virgin Mary, but this is rather an external, everyday religiosity. There is absolutely no religious fanaticism, religious intolerance, so significant in The Song of Roland.
The Spanish “Song” is poor in epithets, comparisons, and metaphors, but this is compensated by the diversity of the tone of the narrative itself: energetic in descriptions of battles, lyrical in family scenes, and humorous in everyday episodes. The language of the poem is close to folk.
The image of Sid also appears in the poem “Rodrigo” (XIV century), dedicated to the youth of the hero, and in an extensive cycle of romances of the XV-XVI centuries. Numerous literary adaptations and borrowings from epic tales about Sid are known: G. de Castro “The Youthful Exploits of Sid”, “The Acts of Sid”: P. Corneille “Sid”: M. Machado “Castile”, etc.
5. Ideological and artistic originality of “Song of the Nibelungs”.
In the 12th century, secular fiction in German appeared in Germany, recorded in written monuments. It serves as an expression of the ideology of the feudal society that had already developed by this time and at the same time as an essential instrument for its formation and development. This new secular literature of German chivalry has different sources. On the one hand, it borrows new subjects and genres from France, the classic country of feudalism, from where a new knightly culture and deology penetrated into Germany.
The German heroic epic continued to exist in the folk epic tradition throughout the early Middle Ages, despite the persecution of “pagan songs” by the church. Along with the decline of druzhina life and the formation of feudal society, the druzhina singer disappears, but his epic repertoire passes to the shpilman, a new type of boyar professional singer.
The Shpilmans introduce significant plot changes to ancient epic tales. These tales are subject to Christianization and feudalization, and are transferred into the framework of new social relations.
The heroic epic with its military ideals was to take an honorable place in the new secular literature of feudal society. Under the influence of samples borrowed from France, ancient epic songs about Siegfried and the death of the Nibelungs, about Dietrich of Berne, Walter of Aquitaine and many others. Dr. are processed into extensive epic poems, which are no longer intended for song performance, but for recitation for manuscript by a shpilman or learned cleric. This is the significant difference between medieval German epic and Russian epics or South Slavic epic songs. Epics and “youth songs” have survived to us in the living tradition of folk art and oral performance by folk singers, while German medieval epic songs in their original folk form remained unrecorded and were preserved only in literary adaptations of the late 12th – 13th centuries. With this processing, folk epic tales were significantly influenced by knightly ideology and new literary forms.
Plots of the German epic of the 12th – 13th centuries. In their origin, they go back to the tribal epic songs of the era of the “Great Migration of Peoples”. Individual plots or cycles still retain their independence. The Frankish epic about Siegfried, the Burgundian epic about Gunther, the Gothic epic about Dietrich and Ermanaric are getting closer, but they have not yet united into a German epic.
Thus, the German heroic epic is not as national as French or Spanish. His heroes do not act as defenders of their homeland or people from foreigners (like Roland or Sid), their heroic exploits are limited by personal and family-tribal, tribal and feudal interests.
The center of the cyclical unification of tribal epic tales in the process of development of the German epic gradually becomes the king of the Huns Etzel (Attila). In later German heroic tales, he fulfills the same role of an ideal epic monarch, which belongs to Charlemagne in the Old French epic and to Prince Vladimir in Russian.
A striking work of the German heroic epic is the “Song of the Nibelungs”.
NIBELUNGS (niflungs) (German Nibelunge; Old Norse Niflunger, Hniflungar), heroes of German-Scandinavian mythology, owners of a treasure - a golden treasure.
The origin of the name “Nibelungs” can be explained from the Old Icelandic niff, the same root as “Niflheim” - the world of darkness, since in Scandinavian legends the dwarfs who lived in the underworld - the black elves - were considered the guardians of treasures. The author of the "Song of the Nibelungs" only briefly mentions fairy-tale characters; in the epic, the mighty warriors, the brothers Schilbung and Nibelung and their subjects, who were defeated by Siegfried, the new owner of the treasure, are called Nibelungs. In the second part of the epic the name "Nibelungs"
transferred to the Burgundian kings who took possession of the treasure after the death of Siegfried, which allowed some researchers to explain this word from the German Nibel - fog, i.e. inhabitants of a foggy country - an epithet applied to the distant Franks.
The poem consists of 39 songs (“adventures”). The epic was composed around 1200. In Middle High German. First published in 1757. The work is based on widespread legends about Sigurd (Siegfried), Gudrun (Kriemhild), Brynhild (Brynhild), Gunnar (Gunther), Etil (Etzel) and on the same as Eddic poetry, historical material (the fall of the Burgundian kingdom in 437 and death of Attila, leader of the Huns in 453). However, the artistic interpretation of already known legends in the “Song” is a synthesis of legendary fairy-tale motifs, echoes of ancient historical events, and new knightly influences.
As emphasized by B.E. Purishev, heroic poems reflected a life full of dangers, powerful passions and tragic clashes.
Historical events are perceived in the work as a clash of rulers, in which the Burgundian king Gunter was defeated, and Etzel, the leader of the Huns, won. All participants in the conflict are guided not by the desire to protect the tribe, their native land, but by reasons of a personal nature: personal honor, love, revenge, resentment, the desire to take possession of treasures.
Thanks to the invisibility cloak, Siegfried helps Gunther defeat Brunhild in heroic competitions; She herself does not know that Siegfried tamed her violent temper. Gunther marries Brunhild, Kriemhild marries Siegfried and leaves with him for Flanders.
Ten years later, the heroes meet again, and a dispute breaks out between the queens about whose husband is more worthy. Kriemhild shows Brunhild the ring and belt that Siegfried once took from her as a sign of victory, and reveals his deception. By order of the angry Brynhild and with the consent of Gunther, jealous of Siegfried's power, the king's vassal Hagen kills the hero, having found out his weak spot from Kriemhild. Siegfried once bathed in the blood of a dragon and could only be struck by a weapon in the place between his shoulder blades, where a linden leaf stuck to his back. After Siegfried's death, his treasures go to the Burgundians, who hide them at the bottom of the Rhine.
In the second part of the poem, Kriemhild, who married the Hun king Etzel, invites the Burgundians to her country, which lies far beyond the Danube. Kriemhild wants to avenge Siegfried's death and return his treasures: she destroys the Burgundian army, kills her brother Gunther and cuts off Hagen's head with a sword that he once removed from the body of the murdered Siegfried. Knight Hildebrandt, outraged by Kriemhild's cruelty, cuts her in two with a blow of his sword. The golden treasure of the Nibelungs, the cause of strife and the death of the Burgundian royal house, remains forever in a hidden place under the waters of the Rhine.
The ideological and artistic originality of the poem The German poem about the Nibelungs is a product of the transformation of an ancient epic plot in the era of the heyday of feudalism: it is a knightly romance about the love and revenge of Kriemhild, with the central motives of knightly service to a lady, marital love, feudal honor and fidelity. Siegfried is portrayed as a prince of noble family and knightly upbringing. Kriemhild has been faithful to her beloved husband for many years, with whom she lives in an idyllic family relationship. Hagen acts as an example of the feudal loyalty of a vassal, for the sake of the honor and glory of the master, ready for exploits and crimes. Magnificent holidays, divine services, feasts and tournaments, receiving guests and sending embassies alternate with battles in which the heroic courage and miraculous strength of the knights are demonstrated. The poem unfolds an idealized picture of the military and peaceful life of the feudal aristocracy of the era of the Crusades and the heyday of knightly culture. The broad and slow epic narrative is rich in episodes and descriptive details, trifles of idealized life and pictures of emotional experiences.
In the Song of the Nibelungs, the struggle for power is depicted as a course of action dictated by a code of honor: Siegfried, who threatened to become dangerous to the Burgundian court, must fall so that Gunther can rule without fear of rivals.
The relationship between the straightforwardly strong Hagen von Tronje and the weak, hesitant Gunther reflects the balance of power between the central government and local princes in Germany at the turn of the 12th - 13th centuries.
Perhaps the most striking image in the poem is the image of Siegfried. His image combines the archaic features of the hero of myths and fairy tales with the behavior of a feudal knight, ambitious and cocky. Offended at first by the insufficiently friendly reception, he is insolent and threatens the King of the Burgundians, encroaching on his life and throne. He soon resigns himself, remembering the purpose of his visit.
It is characteristic that the prince unquestioningly serves King Gunther, not ashamed to become his vassal. This reflects not only the desire to get Kriemhild as a wife, but also the pathos of faithful service to the overlord, invariably inherent in the medieval heroic epic. The first seventeen adventures (chapters) are devoted to the fate of Siegfried. He first appears in the second adventure, and the mourning and funeral of the hero takes place in the seventeenth adventure. It is stated about him that he was born in Xanten, the capital of the Netherlands. Despite his young age, he visited many countries, gaining fame for his courage and power.
Siegfried is endowed with a powerful will to live, a strong belief in himself, and at the same time he lives with passions that awaken in him by the power of foggy visions and vague dreams.
Hagen, a strong representative of feudal ideology, is the evil genius of Siegfried; he acts strictly in accordance with the requirements of feudal value concepts. The murder of Siegfried is an expression of loyalty to the Burgundian court, which orders him to also take away the treasures of the Nibelungs from Siegfried's widow, since he foresees Kriemhild's revenge, using these treasures he can attract the Burgundian knights to his side.
Thus, he, having caused her great personal grief, also grossly humiliates her, affecting her honor. Equally consistently and without hesitation, Kriemhild uses Etzel’s power to avenge the murder of her beloved husband and the humiliation she experienced. Hagen is aware of the danger to which the Burgundians expose themselves by going to Etzel's court, and initially warns against the trip. But when he is reproached for cowardice and thereby insulting his honor, he is the first to insist with grim determination on a trip that ends in his death.
Hagen and Kriemhild look like ideal heroes of a courtly epic. Both display a heightened sense of honor that does not tolerate insults, and Hagen also has outstanding military qualities and unconditional vassal loyalty.
Thus, both adhere to a line of behavior that corresponds to the leading ideas of feudal ideology. But since these values of a general nature are shown against the backdrop of the brutal struggle of feudal lords for power and thereby, having come into contact with reality, reveal their true character, they - first of all, the concept of feudal honor - act as a terrible threat to man and society: the consistent implementation of the ideals of feudal ethics in practice leads to a horrific catastrophe.
From the moment the Burgundians appeared in the capital of the Huns, Kriemhild discarded all pretense, meeting Hagen, and even her own brothers, as sworn enemies. She is convinced that Siegfried's killer is now in her hands, and he will reveal to her where the Rhine gold is hidden. Through the fault of Kriemhild, thousands of people will die in the battles between hosts and guests. But no one’s death, even the death of her own son, does not sadden Kriemhild. She cannot calm down until Hagen and Gunther become her prisoners. The idea of Christian forgiveness is organically alien to her. This is apparently explained by the fact that the plot of “The Song of the Nibelungs”
took shape in pagan times. In the finalized and recorded version, the authors of the German heroic epic, using the example of Kriemhild’s fate, show how destructive the obsession with revenge turns out to be for the avenger herself, who in the final thirty-ninth adventure turns into an ominous fury: she orders her brother’s head to be cut off. Holding in her hands the head of the one whom Hagen served, she demands that the secret of the Nibelungen treasure be revealed to her. But if in the past Hagen managed to find out Siegfried’s secret from her, now she cannot force Hagen to tell her where Siegfried’s heritage is.
Realizing her moral defeat, Kriemhild takes Siegfried's sword in her hands and cuts off the head of his killer. Revenge has been achieved, but at what cost? However, Kriemhild herself does not have long to live: she is killed by old Hildebrand, who takes revenge on her for the one who was just beheaded by her, and for the fact that through her fault so many worthy knights died.
“The Song of the Nibelungs” is a story about the vicissitudes of human destinies, about the fratricidal wars that tore apart the feudal world. Etzel, the most powerful ruler of the early Middle Ages, acquired the features of an ideal ruler who paid for his nobility and gullibility, becoming a victim of those whom he revered as his closest people. The battle of the Huns with the Burgundians in the popular consciousness becomes the root cause of the death of the Hunnic state, which was initially fragile, since it was a conglomerate of nomadic tribes. However, the historical consciousness of the people ignores objective reasons, preferring to identify world cataclysms with family feuds, modeling statehood in the image of family ties and conflicts.
In the poem there is a man presented as an alternative to the hero of the courtly epic and as an artistic embodiment of the ideal that personifies humanity Dietrich of Berne, Etzel's vassal. He does everything to prevent a battle between the Huns and Burgundians, which, from the point of view of feudal morality, should demonstrate an example of knightly heroism; he warns the Burgunians, refuses Etzel to fulfill his vassal duty, while rising even above his personal grief. However, despite all his efforts, he fails to prevent the catastrophe caused by the contradictions of feudal society, which with irresistible force destroys the humane aspirations of the individual.
The German heroic epic “The Song of the Nibelungs” is a vast work, including about 10 thousand verses, divided into 39 chapters of adventure. The German development of the ancient Franco-Burgundian legend about the death of the Burgundian kingdom (5th and 6th centuries) leaves a bright imprint of “courtiness” on the images and plot of the heroic epic. This is evidenced by both the concept of the plot, and the choice of visual means with numerous descriptions of courtly forms of life, and the language, decorated with Gallicisms. “The Song of the Nibelungs” is composed not of ancient alletirizing verse, but of stanzas of four verses rhyming in pairs; Each verse is divided into two sub-verses, the first of which is always four-stressed with a spondeic outcome, while the second has three stresses in the first three verses and four in the fourth. This is the so-called “Nibelung stanza”.
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ed. O.L. Moshchanskaya, N.M. Ilchenko. – Moscow: Humanit. ed. center The reasons that led to the emergence of knightly literature.
Classification of chivalric novels.
The reasons that led to the emergence of urban literature.
Distinctive features of urban literature.
Fabliaux and Schwanks as genre varieties of urban literature.
The reasons that led to the emergence of knightly literature.
In the 11th-14th centuries in Europe, literature related to the establishment of a special class within the class of feudal lords - knighthood - began to develop. The church played a big role in its creation, since each knight was, first of all, a Christian warrior, called upon to defend the ideas of Catholicism.
Gradually, knighthood turns into a class organization of the feudal military nobility, claiming dominance in the social, moral, and aesthetic spheres of activity. A special knightly code is being formed, according to which a knight, along with courage and valor, must have refined manners, be educated, generous, and magnanimous. He is obliged to fight the “infidels,” faithfully serve his overlord and the Beautiful Lady, and protect the weak. All these features are united by the concept of “courtiness” - court politeness.
Definition of the concept of “courtly literature”.
A significant role in the establishment of the knightly ideal belongs to courtly literature (from the French courtois - courteous, polite), which first took shape in France, the classic country of feudalism. The cult of the beautiful lady also developed here - the idealization of a secular woman and the rules of loving service to her. In her honor, magnificent festivities, knightly tournaments, and poetry competitions are organized. All these aspects of knightly life were reflected in courtly literature, the leading genres of which were lyrics and the novel.
Basic themes and concepts of knightly literature.
a) heroics - in the center of literary works there are episodes praising the military valor of knights. However, knightly deeds were performed not for the benefit of the state, but for the self-affirmation of the knight, or in honor of the lady of his heart.
b) loyalty - the knight is faithful to his master, who, in turn, with his generosity must provide the vassal with a decent life.
c) education - the knight is portrayed as a cultured person who enjoys art, observing the norms of morality, dignity and pride.
d) sense of beauty - the knight is portrayed as an outwardly beautiful person, superbly dressed and leading a luxurious lifestyle, which sharply separated him from the oppressed e) religious tolerance - as a result of the Crusades, Christians encountered the highly developed culture of the East and recognized the strength and courage of their opponents - Muslims ( Moors). Enemies were portrayed in the works as people worthy of respect.
f) courtly love - the object of the knight’s love is a married woman, the master’s wife. And therefore love is understood in knightly literature not as a sensual passion, but as a form of expression of vassal devotion. The lord's wife is declared the most beautiful and is the object of worship. The love of a knight is always portrayed as an unrequited feeling, dooming the lover to suffering, otherwise it would be contrary to moral standards.
Knightly lyrics, origin, genre diversity, themes, leading representatives.
The originality of courtly literature as a product of a developed feudal society, which had a rich and complex spiritual culture, was reflected primarily in the poetry of Provence, in the work of the troubadours (from Provence trobar - to find, to create), which flourished in the 11th-13th centuries.
It was no accident that courtly lyricism was born in Provence. On the territory of Provence, a vast country lying between Spain and Italy along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, by the beginning of the 11th century. A cultural situation has developed that is especially favorable for the emergence and development of a broad literary movement. Numerous cities of Provence, which played a major role even during the Roman Empire, suffered less during the crisis of the slave world than, say, the cities of Gaul. Already in the 11th century. they became centers of increasingly vibrant economic and cultural life.
Provencal cities were also important points of growing trade exchange between the countries of the Middle East and Europe (Marseille), centers of thriving medieval crafts (especially Toulouse with its famous weavers).
In Provence there was no strong royal power, at least nominally, so local feudal lords enjoyed independence, which affected not only their political position, but also their self-awareness. Gravitating towards richer cities, suppliers of luxury goods, they were influenced by the cultural traditions that had taken root here and themselves influenced the culture of the cities, providing the latter with their military patronage and contributing to the development of their economy. Thus, the feudal lords and townspeople became allies here, not enemies. This led to the rapid creation of numerous cultural centers. It was in Provence, earlier than in other European countries, that courtly ideology was formed as an expression of a developed feudal society; here, too, earlier than in other European countries, the first great movement broke out against the dictatorship of Papal Rome, known as the heresy of the Cathars or Albigenses (from one of its centers - the city of Albi), indirectly connected with eastern Manichaeism.
The high level of civilization in Provence was facilitated by strong relationships with both Muslim countries and Christian countries, even more closely connected with the world of Arab culture than Provence: with Catalonia and other lands in Spain, with Italy, Sicily, Byzantium. In Provençal cities of the 11th century. There are already Arab, Jewish, and Greek communities contributing to the urban culture of Provence. It was through Provence that various eastern and southern European influences spread to the continent - first to the neighboring French lands, and then further north.
Already in the 11th century. In the castles and cities of Provence, a poetic movement developed, which over time became known as the poetry of the troubadours. It reaches its peak in the 12th century. and continues - in a weakened form - in the 13th century. The poetry of the troubadours gradually spreads beyond the borders of Provence and becomes a phenomenon common to all countries of Southern Europe; thanks to these lyrics, first of all, a radical shift was realized in the linguistic situation in Western Europe. If in the early Middle Ages folk dialects were not standardized, and the function of the literary language was performed by Latin, then the historical and cultural role of the poetry of the troubadours lay primarily in the fact that it was the first secular poetry in Western Europe in the folk (Provençal) language, which developed it “correct” norms, brought it to a high degree of perfection and thereby marked the beginning of the general transition of medieval literature from Latin to rational languages.
Provençal poets occupied different social positions. Among the almost 500 names that have come down to us (among them - 30 women), there are the names of kings, noble feudal lords, but most of them were serving knights - ministerials, as well as townspeople.
The main theme of the troubadours' creativity was love. In an era when the earthly, sensual principle was considered sinful, they created a real cult of love. The knights revealed this feeling as elevating a person, making him more perfect.
At the same time, they interpreted it as faithful “service” - completely in the spirit of feudal relations.
The songs of the troubadours were addressed to very real persons, who, however, appear in an idealized form, in the image of a Beautiful Lady. But the world of the singer’s own feelings is revealed with a hitherto unprecedented subtlety of psychological introspection. The ideality of the beloved’s image was associated with the idea of the unattainability of happiness: this motif permeates the work of the troubadours. Love becomes their incentive for self-improvement; even in suffering it is beautiful.
Thus, having elevated earthly passion, the troubadours subordinated it to the ideal of humility and self-denial so characteristic of the era. The elevation of the object of love required the curbing of feelings, compliance with appropriate standards of behavior - the knights called such love “courteous”, “courtly”. Often, a love experience was revealed against the backdrop of pictures of nature, which was also a new word in the history of the Middle Ages. But these sketches are still stereotypical; they lack genuine life. The center of the composition remains the unique individual personality of the singer himself.
Love is not the only theme of creativity: issues of morality, religion, and politics resonated in the art of chivalry; songs could be serious, playful, and sometimes ironic. The varied content corresponded to different genres.
But before talking about the genres of Provençal lyrics, a few words should be said about the fact that 2 directions can be traced here:
Representatives of the “dark” style used complicated syntax and overloaded their poems with vague hints, mysterious metaphors and allegories. The “clear” style preferred simplicity and clarity of presentation.
First of all, it should be noted that knightly lyrics were entirely subject to the genre principle. The genre, firstly, was determined by the subject (theme) of the image, since there was a fairly limited range of poetic subjects that were recognized as worthy of embodiment and passed from work to work, from poet to poet, and even from generation to generation; secondly, each genre implied a set of possible interpretations of the chosen theme, so that the poet knew in advance how this or that lyrical situation should develop, how this or that lyrical character should behave; thirdly, knightly lyrics had an arsenal of fixed formulas (lexical, syntactic, stylistic, etc.) to describe any object or character from those that were part of the courtly world (for example, there was a canon for describing a Lady, a slanderer, etc. . P.); fourthly, the genre was determined by the nature of its strophic construction (up to 500 strophic forms are known); finally, since medieval lyrics were inseparable from the tune and the troubadours themselves were not just poets, but poet-composers, and their works were songs, the specificity of the genre was also determined by the melody composed by the troubadour.
Thus, knightly lyrics took the form of a system of genres. At the center of this system was the canson (literally “song”), which glorified the poet’s love feeling. The canson included from five to seven stanzas, which were most often united by end-to-end rhymes and closed with a premise (tornado), where the poet addressed his addressee, encrypted by a conventional (metaphorical or metonymic) name-pseudonym-senial.
An outstanding troubadour, a recognized master of the canson, was Bernard de Ventodorn (years of creativity ~ 1150-1180). Coming from the lower classes, in his surprisingly sincere poems filled with deep feelings, he sang “high love” for a noble lady, inaccessible and beautiful. According to him, it is love that gives birth to poetic inspiration:
Cansons were also written by Jauffre Rudel (1140 – 1170), the singer of “love from afar.”
A medieval legend says that he was a man of noble birth who fell in love with the Countess of Tripoli for her beauty and nobility, which he heard about from pilgrims, and composed many poems in her honor. To see the countess, Jaufre Rudel went on a crusade, but during the sea voyage he became mortally ill and died in Tripoli in the arms of his beloved. She took monastic vows as a nun. This legend was popular in European literature of the 19th and 20th centuries. G. turned to her.
Heine, E. Rostand, A. Swinburne.
CANSONA
Love has a lofty gift - Passion inflamed the heart, God, it would rise unexpectedly But they are stubborn and tenacious. Here I am flying with her early in the morning, They are driven by a mighty impulse Suddenly replaced by a melodious laughter - I must listen to you!Sirventa was formally structured in the same way as the canson, but had a different theme - political, religious, moral. In the so-called personal servents, the troubadours discussed the merits and demerits of each other and their patrons.
Typical examples of sirventa belong to Bertrand de Born (1135 – 1210). Bertrand de Born was a typical feudal lord, warlike and aggressive, taking part in all battles. In the sirvents, the poet glorifies the joy of battle and the benefits that war can bring. He yearns for winter and looks forward to spring, which for him sometimes is not so much love as the resumption of campaigns. He is happy to watch how knights, risking their lives, collide in an open field, how the siege of the castle is going on, how the moat is filled with severed heads, arms and legs. He likes all this because during the war, princes and kings become generous, and most importantly, he can profit at the expense of the common people:
I am glad to glorify the troubadours, Whether they take a high or low tone.
He lived at the Toulouse court, - Decorates the eight vagabonds Who sing both out of tune and out of tune, Roger, a song about their love There is a courtly reason for this; The extortionist Bernard de Saissac, Everyone is intoxicated with his singing, He gets into a terrible manner - But he would have helped the poems and the game, He was again at the door, but was kicked out;
It’s like a hundred swineherds are loud: He will be the first to be accused by me;
Cut off the trickster, not the wallet on the cord, At that moment, as de Cardalhac The best answer is unlikely, It would be better if he went to church, of little faith, And the other one is attached between his legs. I gave him the old cloak for that, And I would sing psalms, for example, Sing, pilgrim, pull on until De Saissac is demolished by me. Then he could only win a prize, And gawk at the pulpit. And it’s so pitiful, as if you were ill, And the ninth one is the braggart Raimbout When he was put to flight.
And Giraut is similar. his friend. Until my hearing softens.
With an important look, he’s already right there, And the last is the old Lombard, On a sun-dried wineskin, The fifth is the honorable Guillem, And for me, this master is a windbag, Only in cowardice is he great;
Instead of singing - muttering and groaning, Judging this way or that is completely bad, The itch of his writing burns, Using a foreign style Rattling, grinding and knocking; He sings, and makes me sleepy, They sing with exactly the same fervor. They are used to composing songs, Who, for the most captivating sound, would be better off if he were born mute, Those who are hired for funerals. And even though people break their tongues, Grosh will pay - he will suffer damage. The mongrel has even more so, And the tenth is Eble de Sanya, He was named the Sweet Singer.
The third is de Ventadorn, the old jester, and he took the eyes from the statue.
He whines like a dog from a beating, And there is a rumor about Peyre Auvernets, He is three times thinner than Giraut, And the sixth is Griomar Gauzmar, a woman lover who suffered from his wives; That he is the head of all troubadours, rude, pompous, and I have heard, and a composer of the sweetest cansons;
With a saber as strong as a willow twig, the Benefactor is not very smart:
What, where is there more food and drink, Well, the rumor is absolutely right, The mother cleans the sheep's coop, giving these dresses to him as a gift, He devotes himself to either side. Unless he should only be barely And go up the slope for brushwood. It’s as if they were thrown into a fire, Brave Ruiz’s feats of arms The meaning of his dark lines is clarified.
The Limousin from Briva is a juggler, After all, there are a million such buffoons.
For a long time, having preferred vocalise, I sang these words with laughter, A beggar, but at least not a thief, Mondzovets Peyre was robbed, Waiting for better times for chivalry; The tune was composed to the accompaniment of bagpipes.
I went to bow to the Italians;
The helmet was bent, the sword hung idle. The lament was a kind of personal sirventa, where the valor of the mourned person was sung - a noble lord-patron, a deceased troubadour, etc.
“The Lament” is dedicated to the youngest son of Henry II Plantagenet, Geoffrey, Duke of Brittany, who led the uprising of the Limousin barons against his father, their lord. In the midst of the internecine war, Geoffrey unexpectedly died of a fever (1183).
Our age is full of grief and melancholy, Before a misfortune that could not be worse, the Young King was crowned. Who betrayed the brave to anger and sorrow.
And he would have lived if the Lord had commanded, - In our weak age, filled with those who are pitiful and timid, the souls of all who are young and brave grieve, and the clear day seemed to have darkened, No, I have never grieved so gravely And people became deceitful and petty, He himself accepted death, so that death And the world is gloomy, full of sadness. contrary to.
And every day causes new harm. Our poor age, filled with soldiers cannot overcome their melancholy and sadness. We have to lay down eternal life And there is no longer a Young King... a covenant, So rejoice, the culprit of melancholy, The pensive poet is sad about him, He burned with unheard-of courage, The juggler forgot the fun jumps, - But he is gone - and the world is orphaned, Death learned victory from victories , A container of suffering and sadness.
By kidnapping the Young King.
Who for the sake of our grief and melancholy How generous he was! He knew how to caress!
He came down from heaven and, dressed in goodness, stood out especially for the dialogical group of genres, the so-called debates - songs performed by two troubadours, who exchanged polemical remarks on a chosen topic from stanza to stanza.
The main type of debate was tenson (literally “dispute”), which involved a freely developing dialogue. Another variety - jockpartit (literally, “divided game”) or partiment (literally “division”) - posed some kind of dilemma, so that one troubadour defended one opinion, and the second - the opposite (such, for example, is the debate about what is higher - love to the Lady or love of military glory, valor or generosity, etc.).
The theme of this poetic debate between two troubadours (high-born and low-born) is one of the central questions of the poetics of the Provençal troubadours - the question of the so-called trobar clus (“closed manner”) - a dark, difficult style of poetry. Rambaut defends this style, while Ghiraut speaks out in favor of a simple and clear language that everyone can understand.
Giraut de Vornail (flourishing of creativity 1175 -1220) and Rambaut III, Count of Orange (reigned 1150-1173).
Senor Giraut, how can this be? I will give praise to you who claimed, the rumor goes only to the simplicity of the melodious lines:
That the songs do not have a dark syllable, - That everyone understands - that’s the good!
Is it really possible that, having chosen an understandable syllable, That diligent work will be wasted by a verbal undertaking - let him sing And a stream of inspired words Anyone who attracts him to sing will only cause a yawn in them?
Just to amuse a narrow little world.
No, the path of song is always wide!
Giraut! But for me it’s nothing, as wide as the song will flow.
In a brilliant verse - honor to me.
My work is stubborn, And - I’ll be direct - I don’t pour my golden sand into everyone, like salt into a bag! Find out that this is all an excuse - Linyaure! Believe me, there are many blessings. Fan the flame of love!
An argument with a good friend will bring - Giraut! Christmas Eve is not far off, That here and there From time to time I made a hint about you, - The pastorel is also permeated with a dialogic principle, where a knight meets a shepherdess against the backdrop of an idyllic landscape and tries to achieve her favor. The exchange of remarks in the pastorelle was a mischievous and witty verbal duel, in which the knight was most often defeated.
The given pastorela, representing a dispute between a knight and a shepherdess, is the most typical of the genre; However, there are also other forms, more didactic, where the knight conducts a conversation not with a shepherdess, but with a shepherd.
I met a shepherdess yesterday, let the Blizzard be angry!
I met a girl. I see you between the bushes.
A cap - to cover yourself from the wind. And you can’t handle it yourself - Don! - answered the girl, - Donna, glorified by you.
It's no good for me to amuse myself. To the caresses of love, maiden;
Darling, honestly, Judging by the playful speech, Not from a simple villan, We would love a happy Mother to give birth to you, girl! -Don! You speak flatteringly, the heart is ready to love you. How sweet and beautiful I am, He looks and can’t get enough of it. “Really,” said the girl, “Don!” There is no village like this, I bashfully cherish honor, Where they would not work harshly, So that out of false joy For the sake of a piece of labor. You cannot be covered with eternal shame.
“Really,” said the girl, “Darling!” God's creation Every day, except the seventh, Seeks pleasure everywhere, Holy Sunday Day, And born without a doubt, A knight must work. We are for each other, girl!
Give you a gift from the cradle, - Give it without delay. If only you would order me to take shelter next to you!
Don! I could barely listen to the praises that you sang, - I was so tired of them!
“Really,” said the girl, “Whatever you want, it’s clear that fate is an idle man to return to the castle with nothing!”
Darling, the most timid, Even the most obstinate, Finally, the dialogic nature was retained by the alba (“morning song”), where the Lady and the lover exchanged remarks; sometimes a “watchman” intervened in the dialogue, protecting the lovers from jealous people and slanderers; in a number of cases, the alba turned out to be a dramatized monologue of the “watchman” himself, warning the lovers about the onset of morning. Guiraut de Borneil became famous for his Albums.
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Medieval literature in its highest aesthetic expression is represented by the heroic epic - “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, “The Song of Roland”, “The Song of the Nibelungs”, “Shahname” by Ferdowsi, as well as the richest knightly poetry in which West and East merged. Lyrics of troubadours, novels of trouvères, lyrics of Saadi, Hafiz, Omar Khayyam, poem “The Knight in the Skin of a Tiger” by Shota Rustaveli, poems of Nizami.
In the Christian West, church literature also arose, the works of pious clergy, ministers of worship, who in the dark cells of monasteries, by the light of a lamp, composed simple legends about miracles performed by saints, about miraculous icons, about visions that appeared to Christian righteous people. In Rus' in the 12th century, “The Virgin Mary’s Walk through Torment” was widely read - a vivid and frightening description of scenes of hell. The highest culmination of this type of literature was Dante's famous poem The Divine Comedy.
In addition to these pious literary creations, crude novellas circulated among the people, composed by the merchants and artisans of the cities. In France, these short stories were called fabliaux (fables), in Germany - schwanks. These were mocking stories about some unlucky peasant, deceived by the devil (the townspeople-artisans looked down on the uncouth peasant peasant), about some selfish priest. Sometimes ridicule reached the palace and large nobles. A striking example of urban satirical poetry was the medieval “Poem about the Fox,” which told about the cunning and scoundrel Fox, from whose tricks small people (chickens, hares) suffered. The poem ridiculed nobles, nobles (Bren the bear), and the clergy, even the Pope, under the guise of animals.
Really, I would like to call the 12th century in the history of world culture a century of genius. At this time, the best works of poetry were created - heroic tales about Roland, Siechfried, Sid Campeador, about our Russian prince Igor. At this time, knightly literature flourishes in full bloom. Enriched by connections with the East in its Arab-Iranian cultural inflorescence, it puts forward the troubadours on the world stage in the south of France, in Provence, in the north - the trouvères, and in Germany the minnesingers (singers of love). The novel by unknown authors “Tristan and Isolde” and the poem “The Knight in the Skin of a Tiger” by the Georgian poet Shota Rustaveli seem to particularly vividly represent this part of world culture.
Let's start with heroic tales.
Song of Roland
Our king Charles, the great emperor.
He fought for seven years in the Spanish country.
He occupied this entire mountain region to the sea.
He took all the cities and castles by storm,
He toppled their walls and destroyed their towers.
Only the Moors did not surrender Zaragoza.
Marsilius the unchrist reigns omnipotently there.
He honors Mohammed and glorifies Apollo.
But he will not escape the Lord's punishment.
Oh!
"The Song of Roland"
The famous “Song of Roland” has come down to us in a manuscript from the mid-12th century. It was found by chance in the university library at Oxford and first published in Paris in 1837. From that time on, its triumphal march through the countries of the world began. It is published and republished in translations and in the original, studied at universities, articles and books are written about it.
The lines given in the epigraph require explanation. Karl is a historical figure. The king of the Germanic tribe of Franks (the word “king” itself comes from his name). Through conquests, battles, and campaigns, he founded a huge state, which included the lands of modern Italy, France, and Germany. In 800 he named himself emperor. He went down in history under the name of Charlemagne.
The event described in the poem took place in 778. Karl was then thirty-six years old. In the poem, he is already a gray-haired old man, two hundred years old. This detail is significant: the poem had a nationwide audience and reflected popular ideas about the ideal sovereign - he should be wise and old.
Already from the first verses of the poem, two warring worlds appear before us: the Christian one, whose representative is Charles, endowed with all positive qualities, and Marsilius the infidel, the ruler of the Moors, the Gentiles, and therefore, of course, an extremely negative character. His main fault is that he “honors Mohammed and glorifies Apollo.” As we can see, the author of the poem’s idea of Mohammedanism is the most superficial, as well as of ancient mythology. The god of arts and sunlight, Apollo, who gave so much to the imagination of the ancient Greek and ancient Roman, is forgotten.
His name is distorted, he is adjacent to Mohammed. Ancient culture, rich and luxurious, is buried, and only a faint echo of it sometimes reaches the ears of the peoples of Western Europe.
The opponents of Charles and his warriors are the Moors. Who are they? The ancient Greeks called the inhabitants of Mauritania this way, based on the color of their skin (mauros - dark). Historically, these are the Arabs who captured Spain in 711-718 and founded several states in it. The Frankish king intervened in their internecine wars in 778, besieged Zaragoza, but did not take the city and was forced to return home. On the way back in the Roncesvalles Gorge, the rearguard of his troops was ambushed. The Moors and local residents of the mountainous regions, the Basques, killed the detachment commanded by Charles's nephew Hruotland, Margrave of Brittany. Here is everything that science knows about this event, what ancient chronicles and the historian of Charlemagne Eginhard, author of the book “The Life of Charles” (829-836), have preserved for history.
Many historical events of a larger scale and greater historical importance than those described in the “Song of Roland” remained beyond the boundaries of people’s memory, were forgotten, lost in the course of time, while the facts are not so significant if we consider them “from cosmic” historical heights, unexpectedly brightly and multifacetedly illuminated, and their light overcomes centuries, and sometimes millennia. It is unlikely that the Trojan War, described by Homer, was so grandiose. There were, of course, more important events. But humanity remembers and, as it were, sees with its own eyes what happened near a low hill called Ida and a small river called Scamander. What is the solution to this strange circumstance? This is where art comes into its own.
As soon as the poet uses his magic word to designate a distant or near event, it acquires eternal life. In the changing of days, in the constant movement of time, it seems to stop, freeze, while preserving all the freshness of the pristine. Captured moment! This is how the heroes of Homer’s poems have come to us and live with us, this is how the tragedy that took place twelve centuries ago in the Ronseval Gorge has come to us, just as the images of eight hundred years ago, captured in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” are vividly and poetically pictured in our imagination.
"The Song of Roland" ends with the words: "Turold fell silent." Turold? The author of the poem? A scribe? The man who brought together the poetic tales that circulated among the people about the unfortunate fate of young Roland? Nobody knows. This name was mentioned only once at the end of the poem and was not repeated anywhere else. So this unknown man left, or rather came into eternity, like a vision, like a pale ghost, leaving us his soul - feelings, thoughts, ideals that, presumably, lived his compatriots and contemporaries.
The poem is purely tendentious, that is, the author is not just a storyteller, but also, first of all, a propagandist who has set as his goal to glorify the cause of the Christian Church and the patriotism of the French. The name of the Christian God is constantly woven into the harsh ligature of the story. Not a single step, not a single gesture of Charles, Roland, and all Christian warriors can be done without him. God helps Charles to extend the day, contrary to all the laws of nature, in order to give him the opportunity and time to defeat and punish the enemy; God constantly instructs him in military campaigns and is, as it were, the initiator of Charles’s conquest of new lands.
The ending of the poem is curious in this regard. After the traitor Ganelon, who doomed Roland to death at the hands of the Moors, was dealt with, the Moors themselves were punished, in a word, when he, Charles, “poured out his anger and calmed his heart,” and went to peaceful sleep, the messenger of God appears to him and gives a new task:
“Karl, gather an army without delay
And go on a hike to the Birsk country,
In Enf, the capital city of King Vivien.
He is surrounded by a pagan army.
Christians are waiting for help from you.”
But the king does not want to go to war.
He says: “God, how bitter is my lot!”
Tearing his gray beard, crying mournfully...
The dignity of the poem lies in the lyrically colored ideas of the homeland, heroism, and moral fortitude. France is always accompanied by the epithet “sweet”, “tender”. Roland and his warriors constantly remember that they are the children of France, its defenders, its authorized representatives. And these, I would say, feelings of civic responsibility inspire them and inspire them to exploits:
Let no shame befall France!
Friends, the right fight is behind us! Forward!
The death of Roland and his squad was a foregone conclusion. The traitor Ganelon is guilty. Offended by Roland, in order to take revenge on him, he decided on a monstrous crime, betrayed him to the enemy, not thinking that he was betraying his own
"dear France" The self-will of the feudal lords, severely condemned by the author of the poem, had an effect. The people have always sharply shamed the civil strife of the princes, their self-interest, and disregard for the interests of the state. The figure of Ganelon is a clear personification of this disastrous betrayal for the country. Princely strife tormented our Rus' in the 12th century and was also severely condemned by the author of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.”
But Roland also bears the blame. Tragic guilt! He is young, ardent, arrogant. He is devoted to his homeland, “dear France.” I am ready to give my life for her. But fame and ambition cloud his vision and do not allow him to see the obvious. The squad is surrounded, the enemies are pressing. His wise comrade Olivier urges him to blow the horn and call for help. Not too late. You can still prevent a disaster:
“O friend Roland, quickly blow the horn.
At the pass, Karl will hear a call.
I guarantee you, he will turn the army around.”
Roland answered him: “God forbid!
Let no one talk about me.
That out of fright I forgot my duty.
I will never disgrace my family."
And the battle took place. The author of the poem described the course of the battle for a long time, in detail, with naturalistic details. More than once his sense of proportion failed him: he so wanted to humiliate the “non-Christian Moors” and elevate the French dear to his heart. (Five Frenchmen kill four thousand Moors. There are three hundred and four hundred thousand of them, these Moors. Roland's head is cut open, his brain is leaking out of his skull, but he still fights, etc., etc.)
Finally Roland sees the light and takes his horn. Now Olivier stops him: it’s too late!
That's no honor at all.
I called to you, but you did not want to listen.
For all his friendly affection for Roland, Olivier cannot forgive him for his defeat and even assures him that if he survives, he will never allow his sister Alda (Roland’s intended bride) to become his wife.
It's all your fault.
It's not enough to be brave; you have to be smart.
And it’s better to know the limits than to go crazy.
The French were ruined by your pride.
Here, of course, is the voice of the author of the poem himself. He judges the arrogant, arrogant young man, but with a kind, fatherly judgment. Yes. He, of course, is guilty, this young warrior, but his courage is so beautiful, his impulse to give his life for his homeland is so noble. How to judge a dispute between two friends?
Olivier is smart. Roland is brave
And one is equal in valor.
And he reconciles them:
The archbishop heard them arguing.
He stuck the golden spurs into the horse.
He came up and said reproachfully:
“Roland and Olivier, my friends.
May the Lord save you from quarrels!
No one can save us anymore..."
And friends die. Roland's entire squad dies. At the last moment, he still blew the horn. Karl heard the call and returned. The Moors were defeated, but Charles was inconsolable. Many times he fainted from grief and cried. The surviving Moors converted to Christianity, among them Bramimonda herself, the wife of the Saracen king Marsilius. How could the poet-cleric not glorify his God with such a finale?
The poet's historical and geographical knowledge was small. He heard something about the ancient poets Virgil and Homer, he knows that they once lived a long time ago, and he wrote their names on the pages of his poem:
The gray-haired Baligan was the emir there.
Virgil and Homer are older.
This “peer” of Homer and Virgil gathers a great army to the rescue of Marsilius. "The pagan hordes are countless." Who is in them? Armenians and Uglichs, Avars, Nubians, Serbs, Prussians, “hordes of wild Pechenegs,” Slavs and Rus. The author of the “Song of Roland” included all of them in the camp of the pagans. All of them are defeated by Charles's troops. The Christian faith triumphs, and the idols of Apollo and Mohammed suffer great desecration from their own adherents:
Apollo, their idol, stood there in the grotto.
They run to him, they revile him:
“Why have you, evil god, disgraced us?
And left the king to be mocked?
You reward faithful servants poorly.”
They tore the crown off the idol.
Then they hung him from a column.
Then they dumped me and trampled on me for a long time.
Until it fell to pieces...
A Mohammed was thrown into a deep ditch.
There dogs and pigs gnaw at him.
The poem came to us in copies of the 12th century, but it was apparently created long before that. The Russes, as the author of the poem calls the inhabitants of Rus', adopted Christianity, as is known, at the end of the 10th century. In the 12th century, a Frenchman could not help but know that Christianity was practiced in Rus'. The daughter of the Kyiv prince Yaroslav the Wise, Anna Yaroslavna, or Aina Russian, as the French call her, was married to the French king Henry I and, even after his death, at one time ruled the state during the childhood of her son Philip I.
And she lived in the 11th century, more precisely, in the years 1024-1075. A French poet of the 12th century should have known this. However, it is difficult now to judge the degree of education of the inhabitants of Europe at that time, the connections of some peoples with others. From the Seine to the Dnieper the path is not short, and for those times it was difficult and dangerous.
Song of the Nibelungs
The tales of bygone days are full of miracles
About the high-profile deeds of former heroes.
"Song of the Nibelungs"
These are the first lines of the famous heroic poem, born somewhere in the 13th century, which excited the imagination of the medieval German for three centuries, and then was completely forgotten until the 18th century. Extracted from the archives and shown to Frederick II, King of Prussia during the years when Europe arrogantly disparaged the Middle Ages, it was disparaged by the monarch as a barbaric work, unworthy of the civilized tastes of modern times, and was again consigned to oblivion. But already on April 2, 1829, Eckermann recorded the poet’s statement in his “Conversations with Goethe”: “...“The Nibelungs” is as classic as Homer, here and there health and a clear mind.”
More than thirty copies of it on parchment and paper have survived, which indicates its great popularity in the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries. First published in print in 1757, it became available to a wide range of readers and is now included in the circle of the best epic poems in the world. The scientific literature about it is vast.
The ancient author, who did not leave his name, called it a song. It is in no way similar to a song in our current understanding of the word: it has 39 chapters (adventures) and more than 10 thousand verses. Originally, however, it probably consisted of short poetic tales with assonant rhyme and was sung to the accompaniment of a musical instrument.
Years and centuries passed. The events, one way or another captured in these tales, became a thing of the past, the shpilmans who performed them added something, excluded something, began to look at something with different eyes, as a result, by the end of the 12th century or the very beginning of the 13th, composed of individual songs into a huge epic tale, it included both a picture of the court morals of Western European feudal lords of the 12th century and vague reminiscences of distant antiquity. They reveal the events of the Great Migration of Peoples of the 4th-5th centuries, the invasion of nomads from Asia led by Attila, the leader of the Huns. The formidable Attila, who once brought terror to the peoples of the Roman Empire, turned into the kind, weak-willed Etzel in the “Songs of the Nibelungs”. Thus the eight centuries that have passed since his time whitewashed him.
death in 453. But his name itself has been preserved in a slightly modified form.
The lands on which the events described or mentioned in the poem take place are quite vast. This is Saxony and Swabia on the right bank of the Rhine, this is Adstria, Bavaria, Thuringia, this is the wide Spessart plateau, the current land of Reynald-Palatinate, this is Denmark, the island of Iceland - the kingdom of the heroine of the poem Brunhild, Franconia, the region between the Rhine and Main, this is the Rhone, the river in France, this is the Netherlands - the possession of King Sigmund, Siechfried's father, and then Sikhfried himself, this is Hungary and even the land of Kiev.
The Germanic tribes that created the first versions of the tale settled widely throughout Western Europe, connections between them were not always preserved, and the main characters of the poem, Siechfried, Kriemhild, Gunther, Brynhild, and others, migrated to the Icelandic sagas under one name or another.
But let’s leave this interesting and very difficult topic to specialist scientists and turn to the poem itself, published in our translation from German by Yu. B. Korneev.
We find ourselves in the world of court festivities, knightly tournaments, luxurious court toilets, beautiful ladies, youth and beauty. This is the external appearance of the ruling classes of feudal society of the 12th century, as the ancient Shpilman presented it. Christian Temples have not been forgotten, but religion is here as a household item, a traditional ritual, nothing more:
The squires and knights went to the cathedral.
They served as they have been doing since ancient times.
Young men and old men at these celebrations.
Everyone looked forward to the celebration with joy in their hearts.
Ordinary people as an entourage. He is curious, marvels, expresses admiration or sorrow, but does not play any active role in the events:
While mass was going on in the church for the glory of God.
The crowd of ordinary people in the square grew.
The people poured down like a wall: not everyone again
You will have to see the knighting ceremony.
Young Siechfried is knighted. He is a prince. His parents - the Dutch ruler Sigmund and Sieglinda - dote on him. And he is loved by everyone around him. He is brave and his fame is already thundering, he is praised everywhere:
He was so high in spirit and so handsome in face.
That more than one beauty had to sigh for him.
Let us note here three circumstances that are quite remarkable for understanding the ideals of that time.
The first quality appreciated in Siechfried is the height of his spirit. The latter meant courage, bravery, and moral fortitude.
The second is his youth and good looks. Both have always been valued, at all times and among all peoples. Old age has always looked at young people with admiration and a little bit of envy, sighing about the time when she herself was the same.
The third point that, of course, you need to pay attention to is that women are listed here as judges of male beauty - sighing beauties. This is already a sign of a different, courtly environment. Clerics, and they also created their own culture in the Middle Ages, would never have referred to the opinions of women.
So, Siechfried is the main character of “The Song of the Nibelungs”, its first part. In the second, his wife, the beautiful Kriemhild, will come to the fore, turning from a timid, shy, simple-minded and trusting maiden into a cunning and cruel avenger. But for now she is still a young maiden for us, who has not known love and does not even want to know it:
“No, mother, there is no need to talk about your husband.
I want to live forever without knowing love.”
Eternal theme, eternal delusion! The Russians sang this girlish dream in the charming romance “Don’t sew me, mother, a red sundress.” The mother reveals to her daughter the eternal truth: without her beloved there will be no happiness, years will pass, “fun things will get boring, you will be bored.” In the ancient German epic, seven centuries earlier, the same conversation took place in the ancient city of Worms between the beautiful Kriemhild and Queen Uta, her mother:
“Don’t promise, daughter, this is Uta’s answer to her,
There is no happiness in the world without a dear spouse.
To know love, Kriemhild, your turn will come,
If the Lord sends you a handsome knight.”
And the Lord sent her this handsome knight. It was Siechfried, the “free falcon” that she dreamed of one day. But the dream already foreshadowed trouble: the falcon was pecked to death by two eagles. The poet does not want to leave the reader in the dark about the future destinies of his heroes, and although the picture he paints at the beginning of the story is dazzlingly festive, menacing omens cloud it.
Yun Siechfried, but has already seen many countries and accomplished many feats. Here we are already entering the realm of fairy tales. Siechfried's exploits are full of miracles. He killed the terrible dragon and washed himself in its blood. His body became invulnerable, and only one place remained not washed by the blood of the forest monster, behind, under the left shoulder blade, just opposite the heart: a leaf fell on this place, and the blood of the dragon did not wash this small piece of the young man’s skin. This accident became fatal for Siechfried, but that’s later, but in the meantime he, not suspecting anything, looks at the world with happy eyes and expects dazzling miracles from it.
One day Siechfried was taking a ride on his war horse, alone, without his retinue. Climbing the mountain, he saw a crowd of Nibelungs. They were led by two brothers - Schilbung and Nibelung. They shared the treasures that were buried in the mountain. The brothers argued, quarreled, things were heading towards a bloody conclusion, but when they saw Siechfried, they elected him as arbitrator. Let him judge fairly. And the treasure was great:
There was such a pile of precious stones,
That they wouldn’t have been taken away from there on a hundred carts,
And gold, perhaps, even more so.
Such was the treasure, and the knight had to divide it.
And this treasure also became fatal in the fate of Siechfried and his future wife Kriemhild. People have long noticed that self-interest, an insatiable thirst for wealth, disfigures human souls, makes a person forget about kinship, friendship, and love. Gold becomes a terrible curse for those who are blinded by its alluring shine.
The brothers were dissatisfied with Siechfried's division. A quarrel ensued, twelve giants guarding the brother-kings attacked the young knight, but he, raising his good sword Balmung, killed them all, and after them seven hundred other warriors and the two brother-kings themselves. The dwarf Albrich stood up for his overlords, but the young man overpowered him too, took away his invisibility cloak, ordered him to hide the treasure in a secret cave, and left the conquered Albrich to guard it.
Such are the miraculous deeds of the young knight, full of supernatural powers. It was a fairy tale. It’s unlikely that anyone even in the days of the poem’s creation believed in such miracles, but it was beautiful, it took you far away from the harsh and everyday reality and amused the imagination.
The fairy tale as a genre arose later than epic tales. Its origins are myths, but already when myths lost their religious basis and became the subject of poetic imagination. For an ancient man, a myth was a reality; the ancient Greek, for example, had no doubts about the reality of the personality of Achilles, but the medieval compiler of a chivalric romance knew that his hero and all his adventures were a figment of fantasy.
In “The Song of the Nibelungs,” historical reality, which reached the 12th century in legends, was combined with fiction, a chivalric romance, and filled with a fairy-tale element, which was already perceived as an elegant fantasy. We see in the poem a synthesis of two aesthetic systems - a legend with a historical basis and a fairy tale-fiction.
The young hero decided to get married. It's a common and natural thing. The parents are not averse to it, but the problem is that he chose a bride in distant (at that time) Burgundy, and the Burgundians are arrogant and warlike, instilling fear in the hero’s elderly parents.
The eternal and wonderful care of elders for the younger generation: how to preserve, how to protect young and careless children from the formidable forces of the real world, which always hostilely awaits inexperienced souls!
Sieglinde began to cry when she learned about the matchmaking.
She became so afraid for her son,
What if there is no turning back for him?
What if Gunter’s people deprive her child of her life?
Siechfried, of course, does not think at all about the danger. Rather, he would even like to encounter obstacles and obstacles on the path to happiness. He has so much energy and youthful strength. In his youthful ardor, he is ready to take the bride by force, “if her brothers do not give back in kind,” and with her the lands of the Burgundians.
The old father “furrowed his eyebrows” - these speeches are dangerous. What if word gets to Gunther's ears?
Siechfried had never seen Kriemhild before. His love is absentee. He believes in fame: legends are made about its beauty. Apparently, this was enough for those times.
The training camp is over. The poet did not forget to say that Queen Uta, together with the ladies she invited, sewed rich clothes for her son and his retinue day and night, while the father provided them with military armor. Finally, to the great admiration of the entire court, Siechfried's soldiers and himself
...they deftly mounted the dashing horses.
Their harness sparkled with gold trim.
It suited such fighters to be proud of themselves.
However, a grave premonition of future troubles will burst into the festive picture. The poet warns the listener and reader in advance about the tragic fate of the hero. Therefore, the celebration of youth and beauty takes on a painful poignancy of tragedy.
Siechfried is bold, courageous, but also impudent, arrogant, sometimes behaves defiantly, as if looking for reasons for quarrels and fights, like a bully. His father invites him to take an army with him; he takes only twelve warriors. Arriving in Worms, he responds to the friendly words of King Gunther with insolence:
I won't ask whether you agree or not,
And I’ll start a fight with you and if I get the upper hand.
I will take all your lands with castles from you.
The reaction of the Burgundians is not difficult to imagine, everyone, of course, is outraged - a quarrel, a squabble, warriors grab their swords, a battle is about to begin, blood will be shed, but the prudent Gunther goes to peace, Siechfried’s anger subsides. Guests find a warm welcome. Tournaments and military games amuse the courtyard. In everything, of course, Siechfried is different, he wins everyone in sports competitions, and in the evenings, when he engages the “beautiful ladies” with “courteous” conversation, he becomes the subject of their special attention:
Those eyes did not take their eyes off their guest -
His speech breathed with such sincere passion.
However, let's not forget about time. This is feudalism, the time of “fist law,” in Marx’s apt expression, when everything was decided by the sword, and Siechfried acted according to the right of the strong, which was quite consistent with the moral ideas of those times.
However, the main task of the author of the “Song” is to talk about the love of Siechfried and Kriemhild. They haven't met yet. True, Kriemhilda watches him from the window of the castle, for “he is so handsome that he awakened tender feelings in any woman.” Siechfried does not suspect this and languishes in anticipation of meeting her. But it's still early. The time has not come. The author still needs to show the dignity of the hero in order to demonstrate again and again his courage, bravery, strength, and youth.
Burgundy was besieged by the troops of the Saxons and Danes. Forty thousand enemy troops. Siechfried volunteered with a thousand fighters to fight them. The author enthusiastically describes the vicissitudes of the battle. Here is his element:
The battle raged all around, the steel of swords rang.
The regiments rushed into the battle ever angrier and hotter.
The Burgundians fight well, but best of all, of course, is their guest - the beautiful Siechfried. And the victory is won. Many Saxons and Danes were killed on the battlefield, many noble warriors were captured, but they were treated with chivalry: they were given freedom on their word of honor not to leave the country without special permission. The prisoners, and among them two kings, thank the winners for their “soft treatment and affectionate welcome.”
Well, what about the lovers? How do events in their hearts develop? It seems that the turn has come to love. Gunther, Kriemhild's elder brother and the king of the Burgundians, decided to organize a magnificent celebration on the occasion of the victory. Queen Mother Uta gifts her servants with a rich dress. Chests are opened, luxurious clothes are taken out or re-sewn, and the holiday begins with the ceremonial entrance of the incomparable beauty Kriemhild to the guests. She is “like a ray of crimson dawn from dark clouds.” She is accompanied by a hundred girls and court ladies, of course, “in expensive clothes.” They are all good-looking, but...
How the stars fade at night in the moonlight,
When she looks down on the earth from above,
So the maiden outshone the crowd of her friends.
Kriemhild is good, but not inferior to her in beauty is the guest of the Burgundians, the brave Dutchman, Siegmund's son, Siechfried. The author, in love with his young heroes, literally weaves a wreath of the most enthusiastic praise for them:
Sigmund's son has grown into a wonderfully handsome man.
It seemed like a painting that he had painted
An artist on parchment with a skillful hand.
The world has never seen such beauty and stateliness.
This is how the meeting of young people took place. Now begins a new page in Siechfried’s history, his participation in the matchmaking of Kriemhild’s brother King Gunther, who wished to marry the overseas beauty Brunhild. This latter lives on a remote island and rules the kingdom. This island is Iceland. Land of Ice - this is how this word should be translated. Severe, snowy, with a steep plateau rising above the sea, it was later inhabited by people from Ireland, Scotland, Norway, and Denmark. Brave and strong people could settle in it, raise livestock and some garden crops, but cereals had to be imported from afar. Neither the land nor the climate allowed them to be grown at home. There were few residents. In those times to which the narrative of the “Song” refers, there were no more than 25 thousand, and even now their number barely reaches 75 thousand.
We will not find any descriptions of this country in the “Song”. It is only said that this is an island and the sea all around. But it is ruled by an extraordinary woman, a hero, as if personifying the stern courage of those who dared to live in this icy kingdom.
It cannot be said that the warriors admired such qualities of Brynhildr as her belligerence, her masculine heroic strength, and even the gloomy Hagen, who would later become her most faithful servant, was embarrassed and discouraged: “You are in love with a real she-devil, my king,” says He said to Gunter, and then to the king’s companions: “The king fell in love in vain: she needs the devil for a husband, not a hero.”
A woman should not be strong, weakness, modesty, shyness - these are her most beautiful adornments. This is what the medieval knights believed when they served the ladies of their hearts. How Kriemhild, personifying pure femininity, compares favorably with her in the first part of the “Song.”
The image of Brynhildr involuntarily evokes memories of many tales of ancient peoples about female warriors, who usually live separately from men and hate them. The ancient Greeks created the myth of the Amazons. They lived somewhere off the coast of Meotida (Sea of Azov) or in Asia Minor. Sometimes they temporarily got together with men in order to have offspring, they kept the born girls for themselves, and killed the boys. The Greek heroes Bellerophon, Hercules, and Achilles fought with them. Achilles killed the Amazon Penthesilea (she helped the Trojans). Their strange behavior, their feminine attractiveness excited the imagination. The best Greek sculptors Phidias and Polykleitos sang their beauty in marble. Marble copies of Greek sculptures have reached us.
One of them captured the lovely appearance of a wounded Amazon. The sculpture is kept in the Capitoline Museum in Rome. A face full of sadness, vitality leaving the body. The girl is still standing, but it seems that her knees are about to give way, and she will quietly sink to the ground with her last, dying breath. The myths about the Amazons capture both the surprise and admiration of men for female warriors.
Siechfried enters into a competition with Brunhild. Putting on an invisibility cloak, he fulfills all Brynhildr’s conditions for Gunther (Gunter only imitates the required movements) - he throws a huge stone, jumps to catch up with him and accurately uses his spear. Brynhildr is defeated. She, of course, is dissatisfied (“the beauty’s face glowed with anger…”), but, perhaps, not with her defeat, but with the victory of Gunther, who clearly did not like her. The author of the "Song", without pressure, perhaps relying on the reader's insight, hinted at one circumstance: when Gunther and his company appeared before the Icelandic queen, she turned with a smile, of course, favorable, to the young Dutch hero Siechfried - in other words, Brynhild would like see him as a contender for her hand. “I welcome you, Siechfried, to my native land.” To which Siechfried, not without irony, answers her:
He was the first to make such a speech in front of me,
You are undeservedly kind to me, madam.
My master is before you, and you have no trace of him
Say hello to his humble vassal.
This is where the tragedy begins. Brynhild was disappointed in her hopes. She loves Siechfried, and even more so now she hates Gunther. She is proud and does not show her annoyance, but vengeance is ahead of her. However, an author who constantly explains to the reader all the motives for the behavior of his characters, even when such explanations are not necessary, because everything is already clear, is clearly being slow-witted here. Does he understand the psychological background of events?
However, let's follow his story. Brunhild and Gunther's company arrive in Worms. The weddings of two couples are being played: Gunther - Brunhild, Siechfried - Kriemhild. The second couple is happy, the first... There is an embarrassment here. Gunther's young wife ties her husband with a strong belt and hangs him on a hook so that he does not bother her with his harassment.
No matter how the humiliated husband resisted,
It was hung on a hook on the wall, like a bale.
So that he doesn’t dare disturb his wife’s sleep with hugs.
It was only by miracle that the king remained alive and unharmed that night.
The former ruler now prayed, trembling:
“Remove the tight bonds from me, madam...”
But he was unable to touch Brynhildr with his entreaties.
His wife calmly enjoyed a sweet dream,
Until the dawn illuminated the bedchamber
And Gunther did not lose his strength on his hook.
Again Siechfried had to help the king pacify his heroic wife, which he does by throwing an invisibility cloak over himself and, under the guise of Gunther, entering her bedroom. The ancients readily believed in miracles. Science was taking its first timid steps, and a host of natural mysteries appeared before man. How to solve them? How to overcome the incomprehensible but real laws of the natural world? And then fantasy painted a fabulous, ephemeral world of supernatural possibilities; things, gestures, and words acquired magical power. It was enough to say: “Open sesame!” - and the entrance to the hidden opens up, countless treasures appear before your eyes. It was enough for Siechfried to bathe in the blood of the dragon, and his body became invulnerable. It was enough for the biblical Samson's treacherous wife Delilah to cut off his hair, and all his enormous physical strength disappeared. The same thing happened to Brunhild. Siechfried removed the magic ring from her hand, and she turned into an ordinary weak woman. Gunther found her reconciled and submissive.
But she was not allowed to remain ignorant. The secret has been revealed. The queens quarreled. The reason was female vanity. They argued at the entrance to the temple: who should enter first? One declared that she is the queen and the primacy belongs to her. The second is that her husband is not a vassal, that he has never been anyone’s servant, that he is more courageous and noble than Gunther, etc., etc. And finally, in the heat of the squabble, Kriemhild resorts to the last argument, showing her rival her ring and belt, which Siechfried once took from her bedroom as a victory trophy and presented to her, Kriemhild.
This is how the tragedy began. Brynhildr could not forget the insult. Envy of Kriemhild, fortunately for her, jealousy (Brynhild did not stop loving Siechfried), hatred of her rival - all this has now merged into a single burning desire to take revenge on both Kriemhild and Siechfried.
And her will is carried out by the gloomy, evil Hagen. A conspiracy is drawn up against the young hero, cunning, insidious, cowardly: to kill not in a duel, not in a fair battle, but treacherously, when he does not suspect anything. The author of “Song” draws characters superbly. They are not clear cut. Not everyone immediately supports the idea of murder. Gunther is confused at first: after all, Siechfried has done so much good for him. No no! In no case! But after a minute: “How to kill him?” He already agrees. His younger brother Giselcher also agrees, who previously indignantly declared:
Will the famous hero really pay with his life?
Because women sometimes quarrel over trifles?
Hagen becomes the soul of the conspiracy. What motivates him? Why does he hate Siechfried so stubbornly, so bitterly? Is this only vassal loyalty? Rather, envy, hatred of a foreigner who surpasses everyone in strength, courage and moral virtues. The author does not say this directly, but it is clear from his story.
Of all the Burgundians, Hagen is perhaps the most intelligent, insightful and most evil. He understands that it is impossible to defeat Siechfried openly, which means he must resort to cunning, and he turns to Kriemhild herself. A naive, unsuspecting woman trusts him with the secret of her husband, points out and even embroiders with a cross the place on his clothes where his body was vulnerable. Thus she decided the fate of the creature most dear to her.
During the day, during a hunt, when Siechfried leaned down to the stream to drink, Hagen stabbed him from behind with a spear precisely in the place that was marked with the ill-fated cross.
The knights came running to the dying hero. Gunther also began to shed tears, but the bleeding Siechfried said: “The author of the evil himself sheds tears for the crime.”
Times have changed, people's moral ideas have changed, but it seems that there has never been a greater crime in the eyes of everyone than betrayal. It was always perceived as something monstrous, as the ultimate measure of injustice.
The treacherous murder of Siechfried elevated him even more in the eyes of the reader. The death of the “ideal hero” of the Middle Ages!
He is flawless physically and morally, he himself is a great jewel of the world. What measure can be used to measure the depth of inhumanity and evil shown by his killers? Here is the culmination of the tragedy told by the medieval shpilman. There is no doubt that it shocked the poet’s contemporaries and, of course, created that moral, psychological effect that the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle called “catharsis” - moral cleansing through fear and compassion.
The author of the “Song” will not stop there. He will tell you in detail and in detail about Kriemhild's revenge. It will be terrible, this revenge. An enraged woman will flood her relatives with a sea of blood, who so insidiously took advantage of her gullibility, but she herself will die and will not arouse our sympathy: a person cannot, in revenge, even fair and justified, reach the point of cruelty and inhumanity.
1. Works of archaic epic are characterized by mythologization of the past, i.e. the narration of historical events is combined with the magic of myths
2. The main theme of the epic cycles of this period is the struggle of man with the forces of nature hostile to him, embodied in fairy-tale images of monsters, dragons, and giants.
3. The main character is a fairy-tale-mythological character endowed with wonderful properties and qualities (flying through the air, being invisible, growing in size).
4. Epic generalization is achieved in works by means of mythological fiction.
Lecture: The mythological epics of the barbarians are usually classified as archaic epics. Irish, Scandinavian, etc.
They were formed within the framework of a long oral tradition. Records from the 11th – 13th centuries have reached us. All archaic epics are characterized by this sign as a developed formulaic technique . Epic formulas testify to a long tradition. The connection with folklore remains. The fairytale and mythological element dominates the historical one, or so it seems to us, since we do not know the history of these countries well. Main semantic center - not so much feats as the collapse and collapse of tribal relations, tribal strife, which is interpreted as the cause of the collapse of the world and as this collapse itself . At this stage the epic consists of short songs or prose tales, sagas, which were composed, performed and preserved by professional storytellers (felida) and semi-professional squad singers. During their early development, these songs and epics were subject to cyclization. The oldest of the medieval epics: the Celtic epic. Feudal layers on it are invisible and insignificant. It is customary to refer to the Britons, Gauls, etc. Celtic expansion in Europe spans from the 6th to the 2nd century BC. Then in mainland Europe they were supplanted by the Romans and local barbarian tribes. The Celtic culture, a highly developed culture, is best preserved on the islands: Ireland, Britain, and the Scottish Highlands. Ireland in the Middle Ages became the main center of Celtic culture. This culture was not destroyed either by the invasions of the Vikings and Normans or by fairly early Christianization. Irish monks preserved their work.
Details (details). Skela is a story, history, legend, epic. Still, there is a slight Christianization there. The most obvious evidence: the chronological correlation of the life of King Conchobar with the life of Christ. Even this correlation is of a framework nature. In the story of the death of Conchabar, it is said that he believed in Christ even before the arrival of true faith. The tale of the death of Cuchulainn also reveals motifs relating to the death of Christ, but this does not give reason to think that his death is modeled on the death of Christ. The records of Celtic legends that have reached us date back to the 11th-12th centuries, but they were created in the first centuries of our era; they have existed in the manuscript tradition since at least the 7th century.
The structure of the Irish saga: this is a prose story with the inclusion of poetry, in part the poetic stakes duplicate prose, with so-called rhetoric, short phrases that are omitted in most Russian translations (this is a prophecy, predictions connected by alliteration, the content of which is lost). In color symbolism, red light is associated with that world; it is also the color of the goddess of discord Morigan. For Cuchulainn, the color red is a sign of the presence of powerful otherworldly forces on the side of the enemy. A little further on, the bloody sword of Cuchulain himself will be mentioned.
Skela structure: prose + poetry + rhetoric. In poetry and verse there is often a rhyme; through them the speeches of the heroes and dialogues at the decisive moment for the hero are conveyed. In prose - mainly descriptions and sometimes dialogues. Prose is the most ancient layer.
It is customary to distinguish three types of legends: about gods (very few), tales about heroes (the Ulad cycle and the cycle of Finn, the leader of the Athenians, and there is also a royal cycle), fairy-tale and fantasy sagas. This division is modern.
Plot division: swimming, kidnapping, matchmaking, destruction.
Hierarchical feature: the main legend that precedes the story.
Division by plot opens the way to a religious and mystical understanding of the meaning of history, and clarifies human life (marriage, birth, hunting, etc.) from a functional point of view. The fantasy of the Celts is bottomless. This was especially evident in the legends about the introduction of the mortal world to the world of immortals (this is the plot of imram - voyage). The plot of the imram is the voyage of a mortal to the land of eternal bliss (the voyage of Bran, the voyage of Mailduin, which was created under the influence of Homer's Odyssey). Bran's voyage contains a specific time motif that would be adopted from the Celtic tradition by European chivalric romance. In fairy-tale spaces, time stops for the heroes, but for others it continues to flow. The contact of mortals with the world of immortals always brings sadness, misfortune, and death. Such a persistent plot of love between a mortal and Sida (supernatural beings of both sexes who live under the hills). Such is the love affair between Cuchulainn and Sida Fran. The Seeds were considered the creators of the love potion, another common motif in European literature. The Celtic epic gives a unique development of love: passionate love is an obsession, a disease. The Celts have a common motif of a love spot, whoever saw it fell in love (mainly among women). This explains the belief in the supernatural power of love. The motif of love, which is stronger than death, first appears in the Celtic epic, from there it finds its way into the chivalric romance. So in the novel about Tristan and Isolde, which developed in Britain in the 12th century, love in it is courteous, it is the fruit of magic, witchcraft, and it is invincible. The Celtic epic contains two probable sources of the legend of Tristan and Isolde, perhaps these are two stories of a parallel epic of the history of the archetype: the saga “The Expulsion of the Sons of the Oral” (the bloody feud occurs because of the tremulous beauty Deirdre), the saga “The Pursuit of Diarmuid and Grainne” from Finn's cycle. The active role of women in the Celtic epic, which is a close connection with matriarchy.
Heroic tales have been preserved in three versions: “Brown Cows” book, the oldest about 1100; "Book of Leicester" mid-12th century. The events narrated in the sagas of the Ulak cycle are attributed by storytellers to the turn of our era. Archaeological legends show that it really corresponded to that time. The king of the Ulads Cakhabar, Cuchulainn and the events of the saga of the abduction of the bull are quite accurately placed in time in the annals. At the same time, the archaic epic never reproduces the events of history as a certain truth; the goal is a general understanding of events. The essential is revealed through the actions of the heroes in the perspective of a long time, this is the reason for the presence of the main dimension of the epic (the absolute epic past). The absolute epic past needs an ideal epic hero, such a hero in the Irish epic is Cuchulainn (too young, too brave, too beautiful). His death turns out to be predetermined by his best qualities. The sagas about Cu Chulainn tend to form a separate cycle. The main act of the hero, which gives meaning to all his other exploits, was undoubtedly the protection of the greatest treasure of the Ulads, the sacred bull. This feat correlates with the name of the hero and fully reveals the image of the ideal hero, correlates with his name (the fact is that the name Cu Chulainn was given to him because at the age of 6 he kills the formidable dog of the blacksmith Kulin and takes an oath to protect his lands for the time being; Cuchulainn is the dog of the kulan, the blacksmith). The name becomes the fate of Cuchulainn. All the heroism and courage that other wars lack are concentrated in Cuchulainn alone. Throughout the long earth he fights wars at the ford. The spell cast by Cuchulainn allows one to cross the ford only one by one. This is called the Irish Iliad: the fight for the most beautiful woman, the fight for the most beautiful bull. The structure itself is rather the opposite of the Iliad: there the anger of Achilles forces him to leave the battle, here it is the other way around: Cuchulainn alone fights until he helps other wars. "The fight between Cuchulainn and Ferdiad." A number of legends reveal the humanity of Cuchulainn, whose image also contains features of mythical demonism. According to one version, he is the son of God. The description of Cuchulainn is contradictory: he is either a beautiful young man or a small black man. On the one hand, he is marvelous and meek, as he appears to women, on the other hand, he has a dark, magical, distorted appearance that he did not respect. The distortion of Cuchulainn before the battle is a plastic expression of military courage and rage, an internal, psychological change in the character, the mood for battle. Many features of a classic hero. Folklore fiction is realistic fiction.
The epic does not know how to reveal the internal change of a person’s soul, except in external manifestations. The Saga of the Death of Cuchulainn. It reveals a cognitive element that is similar to an internal monologue. It is generally accepted that the internal monologue appears only in the 19th century in the novel; modern authors strive to capture the stream of consciousness of the characters as accurately as possible, which is usually associated with the modern level of development of psychology. An archaic epic, by definition, should not have an internal monologue , but in the episode of the death of the faithful charioteer Cuchulainn there are words torn off from ordinary words. From the point of view of semantics and structure, we are observing a person’s stream of consciousness or a monologue of the soul. At least the last two lines of the inner speech of Laek, the charioteer, are later insertions by the monk. Laek dies as a Christian on the day of the death of the epic hero Cuchulainn. The epic is characterized by anachronisms (erroneous, intentional or conditional attribution of events, phenomena, objects, personalities to another time, era relative to the actual chronology) : An epic character dies as a true Christian during the life of Christ and before his death. This anachronism is quite natural for an epic. Celtic heroic tales will become the main arsenal of the British cycle of chivalric romance and the French romance.
Literature in Latin served as a bridge between Antiquity and the Middle Ages. But the basis of what is new that appeared in European culture and determined its fundamental difference from the culture of Antiquity is not scientific literature, but folklore of peoples, appeared on the arena of history as a result of the migration of peoples and the death of ancient civilization.
Moving on to this topic, it is necessary to dwell specifically on such a theoretical problem as the fundamental difference between literature and folklore.
Literature and folklore. There is a fundamental the difference between folklore epic and literary epic, first of all the novel. M.M. Bakhtin identifies three main differences between an epic and a novel: “... the subject of an epic serves national epic past, “absolute past”, in the terminology of Goethe and Schiller, the source of the epic is national legend(A not personal experience and free fiction growing on its basis), the epic world is separated from modernity, those. from the time of the singer (the author and his listeners), absolute epic distance"(Bakhtin M.M. Epic and novel // Bakhtin M.M. Questions of literature and "aesthetics. - M., 1975. - P. 456 (the term “epic” the author denotes a heroic epic)). An idea in a literary work expresses the author’s attitude towards what is depicted. She is individual. In a heroic epic, where there is no individual author, only a general heroic idea can be expressed, which is, therefore, the idea of a genre (at most, a cycle or plot), and not a separate work. Let's call this idea of a genre an epic idea.
The rhapsode does not give a personal assessment of the person portrayed both for objective reasons (“absolute epic distance” does not allow him to discuss “the first and highest,” “fathers,” “ancestors”), and for subjective reasons (the rhapsodist is not the author, not the writer, but the keeper of the legend). It is no coincidence that a number of assessments are put into the mouths of the heroes of the epic. Consequently, the glorification of characters or their exposure, even love or hatred, belongs to the entire people - the creator of the heroic epic.
However, it would be a mistake, based on the above considerations, to conclude that the rhapsode’s activities are uncreative. The narrator was not allowed freedom (i.e., the author's principle), but at the same time accuracy was not required from him. Folklore is not learned by heart, so deviations from what is heard are perceived not as a mistake (as would be the case when transmitting a literary work), but as improvisation. Improvisation- a mandatory beginning in the heroic epic. Clarification of this feature leads to the conclusion that in the epic there is a different system of artistic means than in literature; it is determined by the principle of improvisation and initially acts not as an artistic system, but as a mnemonic system that allows one to retain huge texts in memory and, therefore, is built on repetitions, constant motifs, parallelism, similar images, similar actions etc. Later, the artistic significance of this system is revealed, because the gradual universalization of the musical motif (recitative) leads to the restructuring of prose speech into poetry, the systematization of assonance and alliteration first generates assonance or alliterative verse, and then rhyme, repetition begins to play a large role in highlighting the most important points narratives, etc.
The idea of the difference between folklore and literary systems of artistic means (though not through the concept of improvisation) came to the idea back in 1946. V.Ya. Propp. In the article “Specifics of Folklore” he wrote: “... Folklore has means specific to it (parallelisms, repetitions, etc.) ... the usual means of poetic language (comparisons, metaphors, epithets) are filled with a completely different content than in literature" (Propp V.Ya. Folklore and reality. - M., 1976. - P. 20.). So, epic works of folklore (heroic epic) and literature (for example, a novel) are built on completely different laws and should be read and studied differently.
Two groups of monuments of the European heroic epic of the Middle Ages. Monuments of the heroic epic of the Middle Ages, which have come down to us in the records of learned clerics since the 10th century, are usually divided into two groups: epic of the early Middle Ages(Irish epic, Icelandic epic, English epic monument “Beowulf”, etc.) and epic of the era of developed feudalism(French heroic epic “The Song of Roland”, the earliest record is the so-called Oxford copy, ca. 1170; German heroic epic “The Song of the Nibelungs”, record ca. 1200; Spanish heroic epic “The Song of My Cid”, record circa 1140 - perhaps an original work, but based on ancient Germanic legends; etc.). Each of the monuments has its own characteristics, both in content (for example, the cosmogonic ideas of the northern peoples of Europe preserved only in the Icelandic epic) and in form (for example, the combination of poetry and prose in the Irish epic). But the identification of two groups of monuments is associated with more a common feature - a way of reflecting reality in them. In the heroic epic The early Middle Ages reflects not a specific historical event, but an entire era(although individual events and even characters had a historical basis), while the monuments of developed feudalism reflect transformed according to the laws of folklore, but a specific historical event.
Mythology of the northern peoples of Europe in the Icelandic epic. Systemic ideas of the ancient northern peoples about the origin of the world only survived in the Icelandic epic. The oldest surviving recording of this epic is called "Elder Edda" by analogy with the Edda - a kind of a textbook for poets, written by the Icelandic skald (poet) Snorri Sturlusono (1178-1241) in 1222-1225. and now called "Younger Edda". The 10 mythological and 19 heroic songs of the Elder Edda, as well as the retellings of Snorri Sturluson (1st part of the Younger Edda), contain a wealth of material on Scandinavian cosmogony.
“At the beginning of time // there was in the world // no sand, no sea, // no cold waters, // there was no earth yet // and no firmament, // the abyss gaped, the grass did not grow,” the song says “ Divination of the völva” (i.e. prophetess, sorceress). The frost that filled the abyss from Niflheim (“the dark world”), under the influence of sparks from Muspelsheim (“the fiery world”), began to melt, and from it arose the jotun (giant) Ymir, and then the cow Audumla, who fed him with her milk. From the salty stones that Audumla licked, Buri arose, the father of Bor, who, in turn, became the father of the gods Odin (the supreme deity of the ancient Germans), Vili and Ve. In the “Speeches of Grimnir” it is reported that these gods subsequently killed Ymir, and from his flesh the earth arose, from his blood - the sea, from his bones - the mountains, from the skull - the sky, from his hair - the forest, from his eyelashes - the steppe of Midgard (lit., " middle enclosed space”, i.e. the middle world, human habitat). In the center of Midgard grows the world tree Yggdrasil, connecting the earth with Asgard - the seat of the Aesir (gods). The Aesir create a man from ash and a woman from alder. Warriors who die in battle with honor are carried away by the daughters of Odin, the Valkyries, to heaven, to Valhalla - Odin's palace, where there is a continuous feast. Thanks to the cunning of the evil god Loki - the personification of changeable fire - the young god Balder (a kind of Scandinavian Apollo) dies, a feud begins between the gods, Yggdrasil burns, the sky, which was supported by its crown, falls, the death of the gods leads to the return of the world to chaos.
A Christian insert is often considered to be a story about the revival of life on earth, but perhaps this is a reflection of the original idea of the Germans about the cyclical development of the Universe.
Irish epic. This is an epic of the Celtic peoples, the most ancient of the surviving legends of the peoples of Northern Europe. There are about 100 songs in the Ulad cycle. Judging by some details, for example, by the fact that the good king of Ulad Conchobar is opposed by the evil sorceress Queen Medb of Connacht, who sends a disease to the Ulad warriors in order to freely capture the bull grazing in Ulad, bringing prosperity, and also by the fact that the main character of Ulad Cu Chulainn and his brother Ferdiad, who was sent by order of Medb to fight him, learned the art of war from the warrior Scathach, it can be concluded that the Ulad cycle does not reflect a specific historical event (although the war between Ulad - present-day Ulster - and Connacht actually went on from the 2nd century BC. BC to the 2nd century AD), and the whole historical era is the transition from matriarchy to patriarchy in its guardianship stage, when the power of women is associated either with past times, or with the evil principle.
French epic. "The Song of Roland" Among several hundred monuments of the French medieval heroic epic, stands out "The Song of Roland" Recorded for the first time around 1170 (so-called Oxford list), it refers to the epic of developed feudalism. It is based on a real historical event. IN 778 g. young Charlemagne, who had recently decided to recreate the Roman Empire, sent troops into Spain, which had been captured by the Moors (Arabs) since 711. The campaign was unsuccessful: after two months of hostilities it was only possible to besiege the city Zaragoza, but its defenders had unlimited supplies of water in the fortress, so it turned out to be unrealistic to starve them out, and Charles, having lifted the siege, withdrew his troops from Spain. When they pass Roncesvalles Gorges in the Pyrenees the rearguard of the troops was attacked by local tribes Basque. Three noble Franks died in the battle, of whom the chronicle names the third Prefect of the Breton March of Hruotland- the future epic Roland. The attackers scattered across the mountains, and Charles was unable to take revenge on them. With this he returned to his capital Aachen.
This event in the “Song of Roland”, as a result of folklore transformation, looks completely different: the emperor Karl, who is over two hundred years old, leads to Spain's seven-year victorious war. Only the city of Zaragoza did not surrender. In order not to shed unnecessary blood, Karl sends to the leader Moors Marsilia noble knight Ganelon. He, mortally offended by Roland, who gave this advice to Karl, negotiates, but then cheats on Karl. On the advice of Ganelon, Charles puts Roland at the head of the rearguard of the retreating troops. The rearguard is attacked by those who agreed with Ganelon Moors (“non-Christians”, not Basques - Christians) and destroy all the warriors. The last one to die ( not from wounds, but from overexertion) Roland. Charles returns with troops and destroys Moors and all "pagans"", who joined them, and then in Aachen arranges God's judgment on Ganelon. Ganelon's fighter loses the fight to Karl's fighter, which means that God is not on the side of the traitor, and he is brutally executed: they tie his hands and feet to four horses, let them gallop - and the horses tear Ganelon's body into pieces.
The problem of authorship. The text of "The Song of Roland" was published in 1823 and immediately attracted attention with its aesthetic significance. At the end of the 19th century. The outstanding French medievalist Joseph Bedier decided to find out the author of the poem, relying on the last, 4002nd line of the text: “Turold’s legends are interrupted here.” He found not one, but 12 Turolds to whom the work could be attributed. However, even before Bedier, Gaston Paris suggested that it was a folklore work, and after Bedier’s research, the Spanish medievalist Ramon Menendez Pidal convincingly showed that The Song of Roland belongs to “traditional” texts that do not have an individual author.
Logical inversion. Approaching The Song of Roland as work of folklore allows us to clarify contradictions that strike the modern reader. Some of them can be explained by yourself improvisational technique, other - layering of layers belonging to different eras. Some of the contradictions are explained the vaguely personal nature of the heroes’ functions(the behavior of Ganelon, Marsilius, especially Charles, who in the second part acquires the function of Roland, and in the third loses this function). But a number of Karl’s actions are not explained by the principle of combining or changing the functions of heroes. It is unclear why Charles sends Roland to the rearguard, considering Ganelon’s advice diabolical, why he mourns Roland even before the battle in the gorge and calls Ganelon a traitor. The army of one hundred thousand cries with Karl, suspecting Ganelon of treason. Or this passage: “The Great Charles is tormented and crying, // But help them, alas! I have no power to file.”
Psychological inconsistencies must be explained from two sides. Firstly, in the epic the laws of psychologism, which require authenticity in the depiction of motives and psychological reactions, have not yet been used and the contradictions were not noticeable to the medieval listener. Secondly, itself their appearance is associated with the peculiarities of epic time. To a certain extent the basis of the epic ideal is the dreams of the people, but they are transported to the past . Epic time thus appears as “the future in the past”. This type of time has a huge impact not only on the structure, but also on the very logic of the epic. Cause-and-effect relationships play a minor role in it. The main principle epic logic is "logic of the end", which we denote by the term "logical inversion" According to logical inversion, Roland died not because Ganelon betrayed him, but on the contrary, Ganelon betrayed Roland because he must die and thereby immortalize his heroic name forever. Karl sends Roland to the rearguard because the hero must die, and cries because he is endowed with knowledge of the end.
Knowledge of the end, future events by the narrator, listeners and the characters themselves is one of the manifestations of logical inversion. Events are anticipated many times; in particular, prophetic dreams and omens act as forms of anticipation. Logical inversion is also characteristic of the episode of Roland’s death. His death on the hill is depicted in tirade 168, and the motives for climbing the hill and other dying actions are reported much later, in tirade 203.
So, in “The Song of Roland” a whole system of expressing logical inversion is revealed. It should be especially noted that logical inversion completely removes the theme of rock. Not a fatal coincidence of circumstances, not the power of fate over a person, but the strict pattern of testing a character and elevating him to a heroic pedestal or depicting his inglorious death - this is the typical way of depicting reality in The Song of Roland.
.The literature of the Western Early Middle Ages was created by new peoples inhabiting the western part of Europe: the Celts (Brits, Gauls, Belgians, Helvetians) and the ancient Germans living between the Danube and the Rhine, near the North Sea and in the south of Scandinavia (Sevi, Goths, Burgundians, Cherusci, Angles, Saxons, etc.).
These peoples first worshiped pagan tribal gods and later adopted Christianity and became believers, but eventually the Germanic tribes conquered the Celts and occupied what is now France, England and Scandinavia. The literature of these peoples is represented by the following works:
- 1. Stories about the lives of saints - hagiographies. "Lives of Saints", visions and spells;
- 2. Encyclopedic, scientific and historiographical works.
Isidore of Seville (c.560-636) - “etymology, or beginnings”; Bede the Venerable (c.637-735) - “about the nature of things” and “ecclesiastical history of the English people”, Jordan - “about the origin of the acts of the Goths”; Alcuin (c.732-804) - treatises on rhetoric, grammar, dialectics; Einhard (c.770-840) “Biographies of Charlemagne”;
3. Mythology and heroic-epic poems, sagas and songs of Celtic and Germanic tribes. Icelandic sagas, Irish epic, "Elder Edda", Younger Edda", "Beowulf", Karelian-Finnish epic "Kalevala".
The heroic epic is one of the most characteristic and popular genres of the European Middle Ages. In France it existed in the form of poems called gestures, i.e. songs about deeds and exploits. The thematic basis of the gesture is made up of real historical events, most of which date back to the 8th - 10th centuries. Probably, immediately after these events, traditions and legends about them arose. It is also possible that these legends originally existed in the form of short episodic songs or prose stories that developed in the pre-knight milieu. However, very early on, episodic tales went beyond this environment, spread among the masses and became the property of the entire society: not only the military class, but also the clergy, merchants, artisans, and peasants listened to them with equal enthusiasm.
The heroic epic as a holistic picture of people's life was the most significant legacy of literature of the early Middle Ages and occupied an important place in the artistic culture of Western Europe. According to Tacitus, songs about gods and heroes replaced history for the barbarians. The oldest is the Irish epic. It is formed from the 3rd to the 8th centuries. Created by the people back in the pagan period, epic poems about warrior heroes first existed in oral form and were passed on from mouth to mouth. They were sung and recited by folk storytellers. Later, in the 7th and 8th centuries, after Christianization, they were revised and written down by scholar-poets, whose names remained unchanged. Epic works are characterized by glorification of the exploits of heroes; interweaving historical background and fiction; glorification of the heroic strength and exploits of the main characters; idealization of the feudal state.
Features of the heroic epic:
- 1. The epic was created in the conditions of the development of feudal relations;
- 2. The epic picture of the world reproduces feudal relations, idealizes a strong feudal state and reflects Christian beliefs, art. ideals;
- 3. In relation to history, the historical basis is clearly visible, but at the same time it is idealized and hyperbolized;
- 4. Bogatyrs are defenders of the state, the king, the independence of the country and the Christian faith. All this is interpreted in the epic as a national affair;
- 5. The epic is associated with a folk tale, with historical chronicles, sometimes with a chivalric romance;
- 6. The epic has been preserved in the countries of continental Europe (Germany, France).
The heroic epic was greatly influenced by Celtic and German-Scandinavian mythology. Often epics and myths are so connected and intertwined that it is quite difficult to draw a line between them. This connection is reflected in a special form of epic tales - sagas - Old Icelandic prose narratives (the Icelandic word "saga" comes from the verb "to say"). Scandinavian poets composed sagas from the 9th to the 12th centuries. - skalds. The Old Icelandic sagas are very diverse: sagas about kings, saga about Icelanders, sagas about ancient times (“Välsunga Saga”).
The collection of these sagas has come to us in the form of two Eddas: the “Elder Edda” and the “Younger Edda.” The Younger Edda is a prose retelling of ancient Germanic myths and tales written by the Icelandic historian and poet Snorri Sjurluson in 1222-1223. The Elder Edda is a collection of twelve poetic songs about gods and heroes. The compressed and dynamic songs of the Elder Edda, dating back to the 5th century and apparently written down in the 10th-11th centuries, are divided into two groups: tales of gods and tales of heroes. The main god is the one-eyed Odin, who was originally the god of war. Second in importance after Odin is the god of thunder and fertility, Thor. The third is the malevolent god Loki. And the most significant hero is the hero Sigurd. The heroic songs of the Elder Edda are based on the pan-German epic tales about the gold of the Nibelungs, on which lies a curse and which brings misfortune to everyone.
Sagas also became widespread in Ireland, the largest center of Celtic culture in the Middle Ages. This was the only country in Western Europe where no Roman legionnaire had set foot. Irish legends were created and passed on to descendants by druids (priests), bards (singer-poets) and felides (soothsayers). The clear and concise Irish epic was written not in verse, but in prose. It can be divided into heroic sagas and fantastic sagas. The main hero of the heroic sagas was the noble, fair and brave Cu Chulainn. His mother is the king's sister, and his father is the god of light. Cuchulainn had three shortcomings: he was too young, too brave and too beautiful. In the image of Cuchulainn, ancient Ireland embodied its ideal of valor and moral perfection.
Epic works often intertwine real historical events and fairy-tale fiction. Thus, “The Song of Hildenbrand” was created on a historical basis - the struggle of the Ostrogothic king Theodoric with Odoacer. This ancient Germanic epic of the era of migration of peoples originated in the pagan era and was found in a manuscript of the 9th century. This is the only monument of the German epic that has come down to us in song form.
In the poem "Beowulf" - the heroic epic of the Anglo-Saxons, which came down to us in a manuscript of the early 10th century, the fantastic adventures of the heroes also take place against the backdrop of historical events. The world of Beowulf is a world of kings and warriors, a world of feasts, battles and duels. The hero of the poem is a brave and generous warrior from the Gaut people, Beowulf, who performs great feats and is always ready to help people. Beowulf is generous, merciful, loyal to the leader and greedy for glory and rewards, he performed many feats, opposed the monster and destroyed him; defeated another monster in an underwater dwelling - Grendel's mother; entered into battle with a fire-breathing dragon, who was enraged by the attempt on the ancient treasure he protected and was devastating the country. At the cost of his own life, Beowulf managed to defeat the dragon. The song ends with a scene of the solemn burning of the hero's body on a funeral pyre and the construction of a mound over his ashes. Thus the familiar theme of gold bringing misfortune appears in the poem. This theme will be used later in knightly literature.
An immortal monument of folk art is “Kalevala” - a Karelian-Finnish epic about the exploits and adventures of the heroes of the fairy-tale country of Kalev. “Kalevala” is composed of folk songs (runes) collected and recorded by Elias Lönnrot, a native of a Finnish peasant family, and published in 1835 and 1849. runes are letters of the alphabet carved on wood or stone, used by Scandinavian and other Germanic peoples for religious and memorial inscriptions. The entire “Kalevala” is a tireless praise of human labor; there is not even a hint of “court” poetry in it.
The French epic poem “The Song of Roland,” which came down to us in a 12th-century manuscript, tells the story of the Spanish campaign of Charlemagne in 778, and the main character of the poem, Roland, has his own historical prototype. True, the campaign against the Basques turned in the poem into a seven-year war with the “infidels,” and Charles himself turned from a 36-year-old man into a gray-haired old man. The central episode of the poem, the Battle of Roncesvalles, glorifies the courage of people faithful to duty and “dear France.”
The ideological concept of the legend is clarified by comparing the “Song of Roland” with the historical facts that underlie this legend. In 778, Charlemagne intervened in the internal strife of the Spanish Moors, agreeing to help one of the Muslim kings against the other. Having crossed the Pyrenees, Charles took several cities and besieged Zaragoza, but, having stood under its walls for several weeks, he had to return to France with nothing. When he was returning back through the Pyrenees, the Basques, irritated by the passage of foreign troops through their fields and villages, set up an ambush in the Roncesvalles Gorge and, attacking the French rearguard, killed many of them. A short and fruitless expedition to northern Spain, which had nothing to do with the religious struggle and ended in a not particularly significant, but still annoying military failure, was turned by singer-storytellers into a picture of a seven-year war that ended with the conquest of all of Spain, then a terrible catastrophe during the retreat of the French army, and here the enemies were not the Basque Christians, but the same Moors, and, finally, a picture of revenge on the part of Charles in the form of a grandiose, truly “world” battle of the French with the connecting forces of the entire Muslim world.
In addition to the hyperbolization typical of all folk epics, which is reflected not only in the scale of the events depicted, but also in the pictures of superhuman strength and dexterity of individual characters, as well as in the idealization of the main characters (Roland, Karl, Turpin), the entire story is characterized by the saturation of the idea of the religious struggle against Islam and the special mission of France in this struggle. This idea found its vivid expression in numerous prayers, heavenly signs, religious calls that fill the poem, in the denigration of the “pagans” - the Moors, in the repeated emphasizing of the special protection provided to Charles by God, in the portrayal of Roland as a knight-vassal of Charles and a vassal of the Lord to whom he before his death, he extends his glove as if to an overlord, finally, in the image of Archbishop Turpin, who with one hand blesses the French knights for battle and absolves the sins of the dying, and with the other he himself defeats the enemies, personifying the unity of the sword and the cross in the fight against the “infidels.”
However, “The Song of Roland” is far from being limited to its national-religious idea. It reflected with enormous force the socio-political contradictions characteristic of the intensively developing in the 10th - 11th centuries. feudalism. This problem is introduced into the poem by the episode of Ganelon's betrayal. The reason for including this episode in the legend could be the desire of the singers-storytellers to explain the defeat of the “invincible” army of Charlemagne as an external fatal cause. But Ganelon is not just a traitor, but an expression of some evil principle, hostile to every national cause, the personification of feudal, anarchic egoism. This beginning in the poem is shown in all its strength, with great artistic objectivity. Ganelon is not depicted as some kind of physical and moral monster. This is a majestic and brave fighter. In “The Song of Roland,” the blackness of an individual traitor, Ganelon, is not so much revealed as the disastrousness for the native country of that feudal, anarchic egoism, of which Ganelon is a brilliant representative, is exposed.
Along with this contrast between Roland and Ganelon, another contrast runs through the entire poem, less acute, but just as fundamental - Roland and his beloved friend, his betrothed brother Olivier. Here, not two hostile forces collide, but two versions of the same positive principle.
Roland in the poem is a powerful and brilliant knight, impeccable in the performance of his vassal duty. He is an example of knightly valor and nobility. But the deep connection of the poem with folk songwriting and the popular understanding of heroism is reflected in the fact that all the knightly traits of Roland are given by the poet in a humanized form, freed from class limitations. Roland is alien to heroism, cruelty, greed, and the anarchic willfulness of feudal lords. One can feel in him an excess of youthful strength, a joyful belief in the rightness of his cause and in his luck, a passionate thirst for selfless achievement. Full of proud self-awareness, but at the same time alien to any arrogance or self-interest, he devotes himself entirely to serving the king, people, and homeland. Heavily wounded, having lost all his comrades in battle, Roland climbs a high hill, lies down on the ground, puts his trusty sword and Olifan’s horn next to him and turns his face towards Spain so that the emperor knows that he “died, but won the battle.” For Roland there is no more tender and sacred word than “dear France”; with the thought of her he dies. All this made Roland, despite his knightly appearance, a genuine folk hero, understandable and close to everyone.
Olivier is a friend and brother, Roland’s “dashing brother,” a valiant knight who prefers death to the dishonor of retreat. In the poem, Olivier is characterized by the epithet “reasonable.” Three times Olivier tries to convince Roland to blow Oliphan's horn to call for help from Charlemagne's army, but Roland three times refuses to do so. Olivier dies with his friend, praying before his death “for his dear native land.”
Emperor Charlemagne is Roland's uncle. His image in the poem is a somewhat exaggerated image of the old wise leader. In the poem, Charles is 200 years old, although in fact at the time of the real events in Spain he was no more than 36. The power of his empire is also greatly exaggerated in the poem. The author includes in it both countries that actually belonged to it, and those that were not included in it. The emperor can only be compared to God: in order to punish the Saracens before sunset, he is able to stop the sun. On the eve of the death of Roland and his army, Charlemagne has a prophetic dream, but he can no longer prevent betrayal, but only sheds “streams of tears.” The image of Charlemagne resembles the image of Jesus Christ - his twelve peers (cf. the 12 apostles) and the traitor Ganelon appear before the reader.
Ganelon is a vassal of Charlemagne, the stepfather of the main character of the poem Roland. The Emperor, on the advice of Roland, sends Ganelon to negotiate with the Saracen King Marsilius. This is a very dangerous mission, and Ganelon decides to take revenge on his stepson. He enters into a treacherous conspiracy with Marsilius and, returning to the emperor, convinces him to leave Spain. At the instigation of Ganelon, in the Roncesvalles gorge in the Pyrenees, the rearguard of Charlemagne's troops led by Roland is attacked by outnumbered Saracens. Roland, his friends and all his troops die without retreating a single step from Roncesval. Ganelon personifies in the poem feudal egoism and arrogance, bordering on betrayal and dishonor. Outwardly, Ganelon is handsome and valiant (“he is fresh-faced, bold and proud in appearance. He was a daredevil, be honest”). Disregarding military honor and following only the desire to take revenge on Roland, Ganelon becomes a traitor. Because of him, the best warriors of France die, so the ending of the poem - the scene of the trial and execution of Ganelon - is logical. Archbishop Turpin is a warrior-priest who bravely fights the “infidels” and blesses the Franks for battle. The idea of a special mission of France in the national-religious struggle against the Saracens is connected with his image. Turpin is proud of his people, who in their fearlessness are incomparable to any other.
The Spanish heroic epic “The Song of Cid” reflected the events of the Reconquista - the conquest of their country by the Spaniards from the Arabs. The main character of the poem is the famous figure of the reconquista Rodrigo Diaz de Bivar (1040 - 1099), whom the Arabs called Cid (lord).
Sid's story served as material for many stories and chronicles.
The main poetic tales about Sid that have come down to us are:
- 1) a cycle of poems about King Sancho 2nd and the siege of Samara in the 13th - 14th centuries, according to the historian of Spanish literature F. Kelin, “serving as a kind of prologue to the “Song of My Side”;
- 2) the “Song of My Sid” itself, created around 1140, probably by one of Sid’s warriors, and preserved in a single copy of the 14th century with severe losses;
- 3) and the poem, or rhymed chronicle, “Rodrigo” in 1125 verses and the adjacent romances about the Cid.
In the German epic “Song of the Nibelungs,” which was finally formed from individual songs into an epic tale in the 12th-13th centuries, there is both a historical basis and a fairy tale-fiction. The epic reflects the events of the Great Migration of Peoples of the 4th-5th centuries. there is also a real historical figure - the formidable leader Attila, who turned into the kind, weak-willed Etzel. The poem consists of 39 songs - “adventures”. The action of the poem takes us into the world of court festivities, knightly tournaments and beautiful ladies. The main character of the poem is the Dutch prince Siegfried, a young knight who performed many wonderful feats. He is bold and courageous, young and handsome, daring and arrogant. But the fate of Siegfried and his future wife Kriemhild was tragic, for whom the treasure of Nibelungen gold became fatal.